CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN SOLIDS

A crystalline solid possesses rigid and long-range order. In a crystalline solid, atoms,
molecules or ions occupy specific (predictable) positions.

An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement and long-range

molecular order.

A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.

lattice At lattice points:

point • Atoms
• Molecules
• Ions

Unit Cell Unit cells in 3 dimensions

 Crystal Structures

• Types of crystal structures

–Face centered cubic (FCC)
–Body centered cubic (BCC)
–Hexagonal close packed (HCP)
 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
• Atoms are arranged at the corners and center
of each cube face of the cell.
– Atoms are assumed to touch along face diagonals
 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
• Atomic Packing Factor: the ratio of atomic
sphere volume to unit cell volume, assuming a
hard sphere model.
– FCC systems have an APF of 0.74, the maximum
packing for a system in which all spheres have
equal diameter.
– Example
Al, Ni,Cu, Gold, Silver,Lead and Gamma Iron
 Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
• Atoms are arranged at the corners of the cube
with another atom at the cube center.
 Body Centered Cubic
• Coordination number for BCC is 8. Each
center atom is surrounded by the eight corner
atoms.
• The lower coordination number also results in
a slightly lower APF for BCC structures.
• BCC has an APF of 0.68
• Example
• Cr, W, Alpha Iron, Delta Iron, Mo, Vanadium
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
=4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister 6e. atoms volume
4
unit cell 4 ( 2a/4)3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = p/(32) = 0.74
(best possible packing of identical spheres)
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres

a volume
atoms atom
R=0.5a unit cell 4
1 (0.5a)3
3
APF =
close-packed directions
contains 8 x 1/8 = a3 volume
1 atom/unit cell unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.19,
Callister 6e.

Lattice constant
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 3a
Unit cell contains:
1 + 8 x 1/8
=2 atoms/unit cell
R
Adapted from a
Fig. 3.2,
Callister 6e. atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 ( 3a/4)3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = p3/8 = 0.68
 Hexagonal Close Packed(HCP)
• Cell of an HCP lattice is visualized as a top and
bottom plane of 7 atoms, forming a regular hexagon
around a central atom. In between these planes is a
half-hexagon of 3 atoms. Eg:Mg,Be, Zn, Cd,Ti and
Hafnium
 Miller Indices
• Crystallographic Planes
– Identify the coordinate intercepts of the plane
• the coordinates at which the plane intercepts the x, y
and z axes.
• If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is taken as
¥.
• If a plane passes through the origin, choose an
equivalent plane, or move the origin
– Take the reciprocal of the intercepts
 Miller Indices
– Clear fractions due to the reciprocal, but do not
reduce to lowest integer values.
– Planes are written in parentheses, with bars over
the negative indices.
• Ex: (hkl) or if h<0 then it becomes
(hkl )
End of Pre- requisite
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS

ALLOYS are composed of 2 or more chemical elements,

at least one of which is a metal

•A system with 2 or more solid phases (most alloys)

•PHASE-a physically distinct and homogeneous portion of
the material
•Example: water and sand mixture has two phases
•Example: lead added to copper in the molten state (4.3a)
lead particles dispersed throughout
 SOLID SOLUTION
• A solid solution is a homogeneous
mixture of 2 crystalline solids with
similar crystal lattices. As in certain
metal alloys, mixtures often consist
of two or more forms of atoms or
molecules that share a crystal lattice.
The most abundant element or
compound is referred to as a solvent.
A tiny concentration of an element or
compound is referred to as a solute.
 Solid Solutions
• Solute: the minor element that is added to the solvent
• Solvent: the major element
• Substitutional solid solutions: the size of the solute
atom is similar to the solvent atom (example: brass
alloy of zinc & copper)
• Interstitial solid solutions: the size of the solute atom is
much smaller than that of the solvent (example: steel
alloy iron & carbon)
(1) Substitutional solid solution
 Ordered Substitutional solid solution
 Disordered Substitutional solid solution
Solid solution Vs Liquid Solution
The concept of solid solution is analogous to that of the liquid solution.
Fig shows the formation of liquid solution of water an alcohol. The water-alcohol liquid
solution of water and alcohol. The water –alcohol liquid solution is produced as the
molecules intermix, and its composition is homogeneous throughout.
Hume Rothery’s Rules (Factors governing solid solubility)

To form an extensive solid solution (i.e., greater than 10 atomic percent soluble), the
solute and solvent elements should obey the following general rules of Hume Rothery’s.
1. Size factor: The atoms must be of similar size, with less than a 15% difference in
atomic radius (in order to minimize the lattice strain).
2. Crystal structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure.
Otherwise, there is some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to a second
phase with a different structure.
3. Valence: The atoms must have the same valence†. Other wise, the valence
electron difference encourages the formation of compounds ‡ rather than solutions.
4. Electro negativity: the atoms must have approximately the same electro
negativity. Electro negativity is the ability of the atom to attract an electron. if electro
negativity differ significantly, the compounds will form.
If one or more of the Hume Rothery’s rules are violated, only partial solubility is possible.
 Possibilities of solid solutions

There are three possible solid solutions based on the amount of their elements. They are:

Unsaturated solid solution: if the solvent is dissolving small amount of solute as well

as at a given temperature and pressure, it is called unsaturated solid solution.

Saturated solid solution: if the solvent is dissolving limiting amount of solute, it is

called saturated solid solution.

Supersaturated solid solution: if the solvent is dissolving more of solute than it should,

under equilibrium, it is called supersaturated solid solution.

Substitutional solid solutions
When the solute atoms (impurities) substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal
lattice, they are called substitutional atoms, and the mixture of the two elements is called a
substitutional solid solution.
In other words, in substitutional solid solution, the atoms of the solvent substitute for atoms
of the solute in the lattice structure of the solvent.
This type of solid solution is quite common among various metal systems.
Solid solution. These two elements are completely soluble in one
another at all proportions. This system also satisfies all the Hume
Rothery’s rules that govern the degree of solubility, as below:
1.the atomic radii for copper and nickel are 1.28A˚ and 1.25A˚
respectively;
2.both the Cu and Ni have the FCC crystal structure;
3.The most common valencies are +1 for Cu and +2 for Ni; and
4.The electro negativities of Cu and Ni are 1.9 and 1.8
respectively.
Thus, Cu-Ni system forms an extensive substitution solid solution.
Random (or Disordered) substitution solid solution
In random substitution solid solution, there is no order in the substitution of the two
elements; the solute and solvent atoms are randomly distributed

In the formation of a substitutional solid solution, the solute atoms do not occupy any

specific position but are distributed at random in lattice structure of the solvent. This

alloy is said to be in a random or disordered condition.

Ordered substitutional solid solution
If the solute and solvent atoms take up some preferred position, then the solution is called
ordered substitutional solid solution or super lattice.
Fig shows an ordered substitutional solid solution
Diffusion (that takes place during cooling ) tends to produce uniform distribution of solute
and solvent atoms. Thus the solute atoms move into definite orderly positions in the lattice,
as shown in fig

Au-Cu and Cu2MnAl have ordered crystal

structures
2.Interstitial Solid Solution.
In interstitial solid solution, the solute atoms fit into the space between the solvent or
parent atoms. These spaces or voids are interstices.
Interstitial solid solution can form only when one atom is much larger than another.
The atoms which have atomic radii less than 1 A˚ are likely to form an interstitial solid
solution .Such atoms are hydrogen(0.46 A˚), carbon (0.77A˚), nitrogen (0.71 A˚), and
oxygen (0.6 A˚).

Illustration: illustrates an interstitial solid

solution that is formed by carbon in FCC γ iron
just above 912˚C. In this case, the atomic
radius of carbon is 0.75 A˚ and that of γ iron is
1.29A˚, and so there is an atomic radius
difference of 42%.

Like substitutional solid solutions, interstitial solid solutions also depend on size, valency,
and electro negativity factors. But they do not depend on the type of crystal structure.
INTERMEDIATE PHASES
If an alloying element is added in excess of the limit of solid solubility, a second phase
appears along with the primary solid solution. This second phase may be a primary solid
solution of base metal in the alloying element, or an ‘intermediate’ phase (which differs in
both crystal structure and properties from primary solid solution).
This intermediate phases may have either narrow or wide ranges of homogeneity, and may
or may not include a composition having a simple chemical formula.
Intermediate phases may range between an ideal solid solution and an ideal chemical
compound.
Intermetallic Compounds
The compounds formed by two or more metals in an apparently stoichiometric proportion
are called intermetallic compounds.
Intermetallic compounds are intermediate phases only when they have (i) a narrow range
of homogeneity; (ii) simple stoichiometric proportions i.e., chemically correct proportions;
and (iii) atoms of identical crystal structures.
Thus an intermettalic compound has a characteristic structure which is generally more
complicated than structures of pure metals or solid solutions.
These intermetallic compounds and solid solutions are used to obtain many properties in
industrial alloys. Some of the intermetallic compounds are given below.

Interstitial compounds
Interstitial compounds are a special case of intermetallic compounds. They form between
transition elements upon exceeding the solubility limit of the interstitial element.
Difference between interstitial solutions and interstitial compounds: in interstitial
solutions, the solute atoms are not in regular patterns but are randomly distributed
throughout the solvent. In interstitial compounds, there is a regular pattern (crystal
structure) characteristic of the specific compound
Valency compounds
Intermediate phases which tend to obey valence laws are known as valency compounds.
Examples: These phases are most often in the form in the form of oxides,
fluorides .hydrides and carbides.

Electron compounds
If two metals consist of atoms of more or less similar size but different valency, then the
compounds formed are called electron compounds.
Examples: cu3Al, CuZn, NiAl, Cu3Sn, etc., are some of the electron compounds.

A phase may be a portion of matter which is homogeneous.

A phase is defined as any physically distinct, homogeneous, and mechanically separable
portion of a substance.
PHASE DIAGRAMS

• Phase diagrams are graphical representations of phases are present in a materials

system showing the structures or phases present and overall composition of the
material are varied at various temperatures, pressures, and compositions

• Phase diagram are also known as equilibrium diagrams or constitutional diagrams.

• The phase diagrams show in graphical form, the constitution of alloys as a function of
temperature under equilibrium conditions

• Phase diagrams are used by engineers and scientists to understand and to predict many
aspects of the behaviors of materials by
• What condition is the material in?
• Is the composition uniform throughout? If not, how much of each component is present?
• Is something present that may give undesired properties?
• What will happen if temperature is increased or decreased; pressure is changed; or
composition varied?
Information from phase diagrams
The phase diagrams are used to obtain the following informations :
• To show what phases are present at different compositions and
temperatures under equilibrium conditions?
• To indicate the equilibrium solid solubility of one element in another
element.
• To indicate the temperature range over which solidification of material
occurs.
• To indicate the temperature at which different phases start to melt.
Thus phase diagrams are important for the proper understanding of alloy systems.
They provide information's relating to the heat-treatment processes that are used
to modify the structures and properties of alloys.
Terminology used in phase Diagrams

1. Component: components are pure metals and /or compounds of which an alloy is
composed.
Example: in a copper –zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn.
2. System: The term system has two meanings in this context.
‘System’ may refer to a specific body of material under consideration. for example , a ladle
of molten steel is referred as a system.
‘System’ may also refer to the series of possible alloys consisting of the same
components .for example, the iron-carbon system.
A system having one component is called unary system , and the systems having two, three
and four components are known as binary, ternary and quaternary systems, respectively.
3. Alloy: An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal (metals) and a non metal
(non-metals).
4. Solid solution: It is a solid that consists of two or more elements atomically dispersed in a
single –phase structure.
5. Solute: It is the minor part of the solution or the material which is dissolved.
6. Solvent: The material which contributes the major portion of the solution.
7. Phase: A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform
physical and chemical characteristic
8. Equilibrium: Equilibrium is said to exist when enough time is allowed for all possible
reactions to be completed. The equilibrium state refers to the characteristics of the system
that remain constant indefinitely .Equilibrium occurs when the free energy of the system is at
its minimum value. The term phase equilibrium refers to equilibrium as it applies to systems
in which more than one phase may exist.
9. Solubility limit: It is the maximum concentration of solute that may be added without
forming a new phase.
The addition of solution in excess of the solubility limit results in the formation of another
solid solution compound.
10. Degrees of freedom: It is the number of independent variables (such as temperature,
pressure, and composition) that can be changed independently without changing the phase
or phases of the system.
Phase diagram of pure substance (One-component phase diagram) or unary
A pure substance such as water can exist in solid, liquid, or vapour phases, depending on
the conditions of temperature and pressure.
The phase relationships may be represented on a pressure-temperature (PT) diagram.
known as a one-component (or unary) phase diagram, for the H2O System.

The phase diagram is composed of regions of pressure and temperature where only a single
phase is stable.
In fig the line OA indicates the vaporisation line and the line OB indicates the freezing line.
Liquid and vapour phases exist along the vaporisation line and liquid and solid phases along
the freezing line, as shown in fig. These lines are also known as two-phase equilibrium lines.
The point ‘o’ in fig is known as a triple point. Triple point is the point at which three phases
(solid, liquid, and vapour phases) of a single material coexist. Thus triple point of water
exists at temperature 0.0098°C and at pressure 4.58 mm of Hg.
It can be noted that if pressure and temperature are known, the equilibrium of the system
can be found.
Gibb’s phase Rule
The number of phases present in any alloy depends upon the number of elements of which
the alloy is composed
F = C-P+2
F=Degrees of freedom of system or the number of variables (such as temperature, pressure,
or composition) that may be changed independently without altering the equilibrium:
C=number of components (usually elements or compounds) forming the system; and
P = Number of phases present in the system.
The constant 2 in the equation (1, 1) implies that both temperature and pressure are allowed
to change. That is, the numbers of state variables are two.
Uses of phase rule
The phase rule predicts maximum number of phases present in the alloy under equilibrium
conditions at any point of diagram.
If numbers of phases are known, one can determine the degrees of freedom using the phase
rule.
Thus the phase rule is useful to know whether the temperature or pressure or both variables
can be changed without changing the structure of the alloy.
Illustrations of the use of the phase rule
Let us consider the application of Gibbs phase to the phase diagram of water system
Case 1: consider a triple point in fig 1.8. At the triple point, three phases coexist in equilibrium, p =3.
Since there is one component (water) in the system, C=1.
Then the number of degrees of freedom can be calculated using the Gibbs phase rule as,
F=1-3+2 Or F=0 (Zero degree of freedom)
This means that none of the variables (temperature or pressure) can be changed at the triple point.
Note: since the variables temperature or pressure cannot be changed and still keep the three phases of
coexistence; the triple point is called in variant point.
Case 2: Next consider a point along the liquid –solid freezing curve of fig 1.8. It can be seen that at any
point along this line two phases will coexist, p=2. Then for water system, C=1.]
Applying the phase rule, we get
F = 1-2+2 Or F = 1(One degree of freedom)
This means that one variable (temperature or pressure) can be changed independently and still maintain
a system with two coexisting phases.
Case3: now consider a point on the phase diagram of water inside a single phase, as shown in fig. in this
case ,there will be only one phase present, P=1. Then for water system, C=1.
Now the phase rule gives
F = 1-1+2 Or F=2(two degrees of freedom)
This means that two variables (temperature and pressure) can be varied independently and system will
still remain a single phase.
Note In many applications (especially for most binary alloys †) , the pressure is kept constant at 1
atmosphere . in this case, the Gibbs phase rule is modified as
F= C-P+1
The above equation is also known as condensed phase rule. This equation can be applied to most of the
binary phase diagrams.
Types of equilibrium phase diagrams
A Phase diagrams can be defined as a plot of the composition of phases as a function of
temperature in any alloy system under equilibrium conditions.
The phase diagrams can be broadly classified into three groups.
They are:
1. Phase diagrams for complete solid solubility
2. Phase diagrams for partial solid solubility
3. Phase diagrams containing three –phase reactions

1.Phase diagram for completely soluble metals or (two metals completely soluble in the
liquid and solid states) or (Phase diagram for binary isomorphous alloy systems)
2.Phase diagram for partial solid solubility or (Phase diagrams for binary eutectic alloy
systems)
3. Phase diagrams containing Three –phase Reactions
1. Peritectic reaction,
2. Eutectoid reaction, and 3. Peritectoid reaction.
Phase diagram for completely soluble metals or (two metals completely soluble in the
liquid and solid states) or (Phase diagram for binary isomorphous alloy systems)

• A mixture of two metals is called a

binary alloy.
• In some binary alloy systems, the
two elements are completely soluble
in each other in both the liquid and
solid states. In these systems only a
single type crystal structure exists for
all compositions of the components,
• and therefore they are called
isomorphous systems.
• The equilibrium phase diagram for
the isomorphous system is shown in
fig.
The common examples of isomorphous systems are:
1. Copper –Nickel (Cu-Ni) system,
2. Antimony –Bismuth (Sb-Bi) system,
3. Gold-Silver (Au-Ag) system,
4. Cromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) system,
5. Tungsten –Molybdenum (W-Mo) system, and
6. Copper –Gold (cu-Au) system, and
The phase diagram is divided into three separate areas by two phase boundaries namely
the liquids and solid us, both liquid and solid solutions coexist.
Unlike pure metals, alloys freeze over a range of temperature and that the region between
the liquidus and solidus curves represents the temperature interval during which the alloys
are in pasty condition.
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS (Utilization of phase Diagrams)
Using a phase diagrams, one can obtain at least the following three information's.
1. The phases that are present,
2. The composition of each phase, and
3. The amount of each phase present.

let us consider the equilibrium diagram

shown in fig. of two metals (Sb-Bi) that
are completely soluble in each other in
both the liquid and solid states. For the
fig, let us discuss the procedure for
determining the above three
information.
Determination of phases present
By simply locating the temperature –
composition point on the phase diagram
and identifying the region of the diagram
in which it appears, one can determine
the stable phases.
Illustration: in the phases diagram
Point 1 : which 30% Bi-70%Sb alloy at
1200°F, Only the single liquid phase is
present.

Point 2 : with 30% Bi-70%Sb alloy at 900°F, both liquid and solid phases are present.
Point3 : with 30% Bi-70%Sb alloy at 600°F, Only the single phase is present.
Determination of phase composition
Each phase has a composition, expressed as the percentage of each element in the
phase .Usually the composition is expressed in weight percent (wt %)
(a) Phase composition when only one phase is present in the alloy
When only one phase is present in the alloy, the composition of the phase equals the overall
composition of the phase equals the overall composition of the alloy.
For example, consider 30% Bi-70%Sb alloy at 600°F. At this composition and temperature, only
the solid phase is present, having a composition of 30% Bi-70% Sb.
(b) Phase composition when an alloy having composition and temperature located in a two-
phase region
When two phases (such as liquid and solid) coexist, then their compositions differ from one
another and also differ from the original overall composition.
Procedure to compute the equilibrium
compositions of the two phases:
1. Construct a tie line across the two-phase
region at the temperature of the alloy. A tie
line is simply an iso thermal line drawn
through the point of consideration,
extending across the two-phase region and
terminating at the phase boundary lines on
either side.
2. Note down the intersections of the tie
line and the phase boundaries on either
side.
3. Draw the perpendiculars from these intersections to the horizontal composition axis. Now
read the composition of the each of the respective phases from the perpendiculars.
consider again the 30% Bi-70% Sn at
900°C , located at point 2 in fig . To find
out the composition for both liquid and
solid phases, draw a horizontal tie line OP
across the two –phase region, as shown in
fig. the tie line intersects the phase
boundaries at the points O and P.
Now drawing perpendicular from the point
O, We get composition of liquid phase as
14% Bi-86% Sb. Similarly drawing
perpendicular from the point P, we get
composition of solid phase as 62% Bi -38%
Sb.
Determination of phase amounts
The relative amounts (as faction or as percentage) of the phases present at equilibrium can
also be determined with the help of phase diagrams.
(a) Determination of phase amounts in single-phase regions
In single –phase regions, the amount of the single phase is 100%.
Since only one phase is present, the alloy is composed entirely of that phase. That is, the
phase fraction is 1.0 or the phase percentage is 100%.
(b) Determination of phase amounts in two-phase regions
Lever rule procedure:
1. Construct the tie line across the two-phase region at the temperature of the alloy. The tie
line is considered as a lever with the fulcrum of the lever being the original composition of
the alloy. The entire tie line represents 100% of over all alloy composition at the temperature
of the alloy.
2. Now compute the fraction o f one phase by taking the length of the tie line from the
overall alloy composition to the phase boundary for the other phase ,and dividing by the
total tie line length. The lever law in general can be written as,
Phase fraction = opposite arm of lever
Total length of tie line
And phase percentage = Opposite arm of lever ×100
Total length of tie line
3. Determination the friction of other phase in the same manner .
Phase diagram for partial solid solubility (Phase diagrams for binary eutectic alloy systems)

As we know, many materials exhibit partial solid solubility

Each element is soluble in the other element up to a certain limit or saturation point. The
value of this limit is a function of temperature.
If the two metals A and B are not completely soluble through all ranges in composition ,
then second phase will form at grain boundaries .
The equilibrium phase diagram for an alloy of the two elements A and B that exhibits
partial solubility is shown in fig
The common examples of this system include:
1. copper-silver (Cu-Ag) system,
2. lead-Tin (Pb –Sn) system, and
3. Aluminum –copper (Al-Cu) system.
six phase regions /fields are found on the
diagrams:
1. Liquid phase, 2.a solid solution phase,
3. b solid solution phase , 4.a solid + liquid
phase, 5. b solid + liquid phase, and 6. a+b
solid solutions phase.
The a phase is a solid solution in which
elements of metal A (solvent) is more than that
of metal of metal B (Solute). The b phase is a
solid solution in which elements of metal B
(Solvent) is more than that of metal A (Solute).
Technically, pure metals A and B are considered
to be a and b phases respectively.
In fig , the line AEF is known as liquidus
line.liquidus line is the line or boundary that
separates liquid and liquid+solid regions.
In fig, the line ABEGF is known as solidus line.
Solidus line is the or boundary that separates
solid a solid +liquid phase regions.
In fig, the lines BC and GH are known as solvus
lines .Solvus lines separate single –phase solid
regions from two-phase solid regions. The
solvus lines BC and GH also denote the
maximum solubility limits of metal A in B and
of metal B in A respectively.
The introduction of metal B decreases the
melting temperature of metal A along the
liquidus line along the liquidus line AE.

Similarly the addition of metal A decreases the melting temperature of metal B along The
liquidus line FE. These two liquidus lines melt at the point E on the phase diagram. This point E
is known as eutectic† point.
The corresponding temperature (TE) and
composition (CE) in the phase diagram are
known as eutectic temperature and eutectic
composition respectively.
In other words, euetectic temperature is the
minimum temperature at which a binary
system is fully melted.
It can also be noted that the horizontal solidus.
It can also be noted that the horizontal
isotherm line BEG also passes through the
point E. This horizontal solidus line at TE is
called the eutectic isotherm.

When liquid of eutectic composition is slowly cooled to the eutectic temperature, the single
liquid phase transforms simultaneously into two solid forms (solid solutions a and b). this
transformation is known as the eutectic reaction.
The eutectic reaction is also called an invariant reaction since it occurs under equilibrium
conditions at a specific temperature and alloy composition that cannot be varied.
During the progress of the eutectic reaction, the liquid phase is in equilibrium with the two
solid solutions a and b. Thus during a eutectic reaction, three phases coexist and are in
equilibrium.

Liquid Eutectic temperature A solid solution + B solid solution

Cooling
Phase diagrams containing Three –phase Reactions

There are many types of reaction that occur in binary equilibrium phase diagrams. Some of the
important reactions that are found generally in different phase diagrams are:
1. Eutectic reaction, 2. Peritectic reaction,
3. Eutectoid reaction, and 4. Peritectoid reaction.
Like eutectoid reaction, all the other reactions are also invariant reactions. Invariant means that
there are zero degrees of freedom. That is, the reaction occurs with a fixed composition at a
fixed temperature.
1. Eutectic Reaction
Eutectic reaction is the reversible, isothermal reaction of a liquid which transforms two different
solid phases upon cooling.
The eutectic reaction can be written as
Cooling
Liquid Solid1+ solid 2
 The eutectic portion of the iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram is shown in fig. Here the
liquid phase on cooling results in the formation of fine mixture of two solids namely
(i) Austenite or γ iron (solid solution of carbon in iron), and
(ii) Cementite (Fe3C)

Thus the eutectic reaction in the iron-carbon

(Fe-C) system can be written as

Liquid γ iron( Austenite) +Fe3C (Cementite)

Peritectic Reaction
In Peritectic reaction, upon cooling, a solid and a liquid phase transform isothermally and
reversibly to a solid phase having a different composition.
The Peritectic reaction can be written as

Liquid +Solid1 solid2

Peritectic reaction is found in Sb-Sn and Pt –Ag systems

In the eutectic the liquid transforms in to two solid phases.

In the Peritectic, a solid and liquid phases combine to
form another solid phase. Thus, the Peritectic is
considered as an ‘upside-down’ eutectic.
This Peritectic reaction is observed in iron-carbon system at a temperature of 1495°C and at
0.18% carbon, as

Thus the Peritectic reaction in Fe-C

system can be written as

Liquid +δ iron γ iron( Austenite)

Eutectoid Reaction
Unlike eutectic and Peritectic transformations (which are liquid-solid transformations),
eutectoid involves a solid-solid transformations.
Eutectoid reaction is an isothermal reversible reaction in which one solid phase transforms in
to two intimately mixed new solid phases, upon cooling.
The eutectoid reaction can be written as

Solid 1 solid2 +solid3

Eutectoid reaction is found in many systems such as Cu-Al, Cu-Zn, Cu-Sn, Al-Mn, and Cu-Be,
and so on.
A eutectoid is shown schematically in fig
This reaction is the basis for much of the heat treating of steel and its variety of applications.
The eutectoid reaction is observed in Fe-C system, as
shown in fig. Here when austenite (γ iron) is cooled below a
temperature of 723°C, it transforms itself into a mixture of
ferrite (solid solution of carbon in a iron) and cementite
(Fe3C).
Thus the eutectoid reaction in the Fe-C system can be
written as

γ iron (Austenite) α iron(Ferrite)+Fe3C(Cementite)

Peritectoid reaction
Peritectoid reaction is an isothermal reversible reaction in which two solid phases
transform into a third solid phase ,upon cooling.
The peritectoid reaction can be written as

Solid1+Solid2 solid3

The peritectoid is an ‘upside-down’ eutectoid.

Peritectoid systems are found in Ni-Zn, Fe-Nb, Cu-Sn, Ni-Mo, and many other systems.
A peritectoid is shown schematically in fig
Monotectic Reaction
Cooling
Liquid 1 Liquid 2+Solid 1
Heating

Monotectoid Reaction
Cooling
Solid 1 Solid 2+Solid 3
Heating

Syntectic Reaction
Cooling
Liquid 1+ Liquid 2 Solid 1
Heating
HYPO-EUTECTOID STEELS

• These have carbon contents varying from 0.008% to just below 0.83%.

• They have microstructures consisting of grains of ferrite together with

grains of pearlite.

• With increase of carbon content, the proportion of strong pearlite

formed increases.

EUTECTOID STEELS

• These have carbon contents, ideally, of 0.83%.

• They consist entirely of lamellar pearlite.

• Many alloying elements influence the carbon contents of eutectoid

steels; manganese if added to the extent of about 1% reduces the %
carbon in the eutectoid to about 0.7%.
HYPER-EUTECTOID STEELS
• If the carbon content is greater than 0.83%, hyper-eutectoid steels are formed.
• The steels consist of pearlite and cementite, the latter forming around the grain
boundaries of the pearlite.
• In practice, plain steels containing more then about 1.6% carbon are rare.
MICROSTRUCTURE OF IRON AND STEEL (PHASE IN THE FE-C SYSTEM)
• There are number of special names which are used to denote the various
phases and types of structure which occur in iron and steel.
• Microstructure reveals the arrangement, size and shape of the grains and
molecules.
• It is observed through microscope of higher magnification.
• Let us now see the names of these structures observed and their properties.

FERRITE
BCC solid solutions and BCC allotropes of iron
called ferrites.
It is stable over the temperature range from —
273° to 908°C in iron.
The solubility of carbon is extremely limited. The
maximum solubility is .002%, of weight at 723°C.
It is soft, ductile and highly magnetic.
It has low tensile strength and cannot be
hardened.
Its hardness is so low. It’s BHN is from 50—100.
AUSTENITE
• It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC (essentially γ iron).

• It is stable from 908 to 1388°C.

• The solubility is larger as compared to ferrite. The maximum solubility is 2.11 wt %

at 1130°C.
• It is tough and non magnetic.

• It is ductile and denser than ferrite.

• Its BHN is around 200.

CEMENTITE
• It is interstitial compound formed between iron and carbon; it contains 6.7 wt %
carbon and is represented by the formula FeC It has a complex orthorhombic crystal
structure.
• This is an extremely hard and brittle constituent.
• It is magnetic below 210°C.
Micrograph of Fe-1.3wt%C
PEARLITE
• It is eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite.
• It is formed when austenite decomposes during cooling below
critical temperature 723°C.
• It has a fine to coarse lamellar structure consisting of alternate
plates of ferrite and cementite and contains about 87% ferrite.
MARTENSITE
• It is formed when a steel is very rapidly - cooled from the austenite state.
• It is a ferrite highly super saturated with dissolved carbon.

• It is very hard and brittle.

BAINITE

It is a decomposition product of austenite.

It is formed when austenite decomposes by isothermal transformation

Fast cooling of austenite results in formation of martensite while slow cooling result

in formation of pearlite. Intermediate cooling also results in formation of bainite.

SORBITE AND TROOSTITE -

When martensite or bainite is heated at some temperature not exceeding 700°C to

reduce brittleness and hardness, these structures are produced.

 FERROUS ALLOYS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Iron is the prime constituent of ferrous alloys. They are produced in large quantities than
any other metal type because of the following factors:

1. Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities,

2. Ferrous alloys are produced with relative ease and cost effectiveness, and

3. Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile and hence they may be tailored to have a wide
range of mechanical and physical properties.

The only drawback of many ferrous alloys is that they are susceptible to corrosion. The
classification scheme of the various ferrous alloys is presented in Fig.
 STEELS
Steels are iron-carbon alloys that contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying element
The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally
less than 1.0 wt %.Steels are classified according to carbon concentration, namely,
into low, medium, and high carbon types.
Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than
carbon. For alloy steels alloying elements are added.
Low Carbon Steels
This is the greatest quantity produced steel and least expensive to produce.
Their properties are:
Contain less than about 0.30 wt % C
Microstructure consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents y strength “- 275 MPa
-.tensile strength between 415 and 550 MPa
Ductility of 25% EL
Capable of withstanding a large amount of cold working
Relatively soft and weak but ductile and tough machinable and weld able.
APPLICATIONS
Include manufacturing of automobile body components
Structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron)
Sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges and tin cans.
 HIGH STRENGTH, LOW ALLOY (HSLA) STEELS.
They contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and
molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as 10 wt %. There properties
are:

• possess higher strengths than the plain low carbon steels.

• strengthened by heat treatment

• Ductile, formable and machinable

• More resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels

• yield strength ‘S-’ 480 MPa

APPLICATIONS
• Structures that are bolted or riveted such as bridges, towers, support columns in
high rise buildings.

• Truck frames and railway cars.

• Pressure vessels.
 MEDIUM CARBON STEELS

Contain carbon concentration between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%

May be heat treated by austenitizing, quenching and then tempering to improve

their mechanical properties.

Have low harden abilities

Can be heat treated in vary thin section with very rapid quenching rates ,/ yield
strength between 400 and 1000 MPa

Tensile strength between 600 and 1400 MPA

Ductility strength between 10 and 35% EL

Applications

Production of crankshafts, bolts and hammers .t chisels, knives, hacksaw

blades
 HIGH CARBON STEELS
The high carbon steels have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt %.
They are hardest and strongest
Least ductile of the carbon steels
Normally used in a hardened and tempered condition
Wear resistant
Typical applications are for making
• Blacksmith tools and
• Woodworking tools.
 STAINLESS STEELS
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting).
Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt
% Cr is required.
Addition of nickel and molybdenum enhances the corrosion resistance.
They are magnetic
Yield strength lies between 250 and 1700 MPa
Tensile strength lies between 400 and 1800 MPa ductility varies between 5 and
30 % EL
Typical applications are in manufacturing of rifle barrels
 CAST IRONS
Any materials made up primarily of iron with about 2% or more of carbon is
considered to be cast iron.
Most commercial alloys contain from about 2.5% to 3.8% carbon. There are
four basic types of cast iron that are usually produced.
GREY CAST IRON:
This has a large amount of free carbon in the form of both flake and rosette
graphite in a matrix of, usually, pearlite and ferrite.
Due to the weakening effects of the free graphite, this material exhibits
brittleness.
This material exhibits a gray co lour on the fracture surface.
Grey cast iron is typically weak in tension and fairly soft.
It is brittle and strong in compression.
It possesses excellent casting properties.
 WHITE CAST IRON:
Since a fractured surface is white in colour, it is named so.
It has a structure composed of cementite and pearlite.
Since the carbon is in the combined form (cementite), the iron is
extremely hard and virtually unmachinable.
White cast iron is always low in silicon.
Normally white cast iron is produced as an intermediate step in the
production of malleable irons.
MALLEABLE IRON:
Malleable irons combine excellent casting qualities with a measure of
strength and ductility.
They are produced by suitably annealing white iron castings
 ENGINEERING MATERIALS & METALLURGY
UNIT I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
PART A
1. What is a phase or equilibrium diagram? What information may be obtained from an
equilibrium diagram?
2. What is meant by a phase? State Gibbs’ phase rule.
3. State lever rule
4. What do you understand by allotropy?
5. What is meant by liquids?
6. What is meant by solidus?
7. What is ferrite?
8. What are the possible microstructures of iron and steel? The possible
microstructures
9. What is T-T-T diagram?
10. What are stainless steels and what are the possible classifications based on their
microstructure?
11. What are cast irons and what are their basic types?

12. How does the yield strength vary with grain size?

13. What is meant by heat treatment? What are the different methods
of heat treatment?

14. What is age hardening or precipitation hardening?

15. What is over aging?

16. What is annealing and what is its purpose?

17. What is tempering?

18. Explain astempering

19. Explain martempering (April 2002)

20. What is case hardening?

 PART B
1. Two metals A and B are mutually soluble in one another in the liquid state
and are completely insoluble in one another in the solid state. Draw the
equilibrium diagram for the two metals A and B. Explain fully the mode of
solidification of any one alloy of the metals A and B.
2. Two metals A and B are mutually soluble in one another in both liquid state
and solid state. Draw the phase (equilibrium) diagram and explain the mode of
solidification at different compositions.
3. Draw the iron-carbon phase diagram and explain the various regions in it.
4. Discuss the transformation of austenite when cooled out various cooling
rates based on TTT diagram. Explain critical cooling rate. (April 2002)
5. What are various factors affecting mechanical properties of ferrous alloys?
Explain the process of heat treatment.
6. What are various ferrous alloys? List out their properties and applications.
 PHASE DIAGRAMS

• Pure metals have distinct melting or

freezing points
• Solidification takes place at a
constant temperature
• Latent heat of solidification is given
off while the temperature remains
constant
FIGURE 4.4 (a) Cooling curve for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant
temperature; during freezing, the latent heat of solidification is given off. (b) Change in density during cooling of
pure metals.
 Phase Diagrams
• Alloys solidify over a range of
temperatures
• Liquidus-solidification occurs when
the temperature drops below
• Solidus-solidification is complete
• Between liquidus and solidus the
alloy is in a mushy or pasty state
 Phase Diagram
• Equilibrium or Constitutional Diagram
• Shows the relationships among temperature,
composition, and phases present in a
particular alloy at equilibrium
• Equilibrium-the state of a system does not
vary over time
• Binary Phase Diagram (two elements)
FIGURE 4.5 Phase diagram for nickel–copper alloy system obtained at a slow rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure copper
each have one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals. The second circle shows the
formation of dendrites (see Section 10.2). The bottom circle shows the solidified alloy, with grain boundaries.
 Cooling Curve of Iron-Carbon System
• Pure iron when heated experiences 2
changes in crystal structure before it melts.
• At room temperature the stable form, ferrite
(a iron) has a BCC crystal structure.
• Ferrite experiences a polymorphic
transformation to FCC austenite (g iron) at
912 ˚C (1674 ˚F).
• At 1394˚C (2541˚F) austenite reverts back to
BCC phase d ferrite and melts at 1538 ˚C
(2800 ˚F).
• Iron carbide (cementite or Fe3C) an
intermediate compound is formed at 6.7 wt
% C.
• Typically, all steels and cast irons have carbon
contents less than 6.7 wt% C.
• Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and
forms a solid solution with the a, g, d
phases.

104
Cooling Curves for Binary system
Phase Diagram for binary system
 Binary Isomorphous Systems (III)
In one-component system melting occurs at a well-defined melting temperature.
In multi-component systems melting occurs over the range of temperatures, between the
solidus and liquidus lines.
Solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium in this temperature range.
Phase Diagram for Binary Eutectic
system
 Binary Eutectic Systems (II)

Three single phase regions (a – solid solution of Ag in Cu matrix, b = solid solution of Cu

in Ag marix, L - liquid)
Three two-phase regions (a + L, b +L, a+b)
Solvus line separates one solid solution from a mixture ofsolid solutions.
Solvus line shows limit of solubility
 Cu-Zn System (Brass)
c10f19

Cartridge brass:
70 wt% Cu
 Eutectoid & Peritectic
Peritectic transformation  + L

Cu-Zn Phase diagram

Eutectoid transformation  +

111
• TERNARY Phase Diagram

• 1. 60% A | 20% B | 20% C = 100%

2. 25% A | 40% B | 35% C = 100%
3. 10% A | 70% B | 20% C = 100%
4. 0.0% A | 25% B | 75% C = 100%
 SUMMARY
• Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine:

--the number and types of phases,

--the wt% of each phase,
--and the composition of each phase
for a given T and composition of the system.

• Alloying to produce a solid solution usually

--increases the tensile strength (TS)

--decreases the ductility.
• Binary eutectics and binary eutectoids allow for
a range of microstructures.

26
IRON-IRON CARBIDE SYSTEM
Fe-Carbon Diagram
Iron-Carbon System
c10f28
IRON CARBON CONSTITUTIONAL DIAGRAM-II
4 Solid Phases
 Eutectoid reaction:
Pearlite
g
↔
a + Fe3C
c10f30

Redistribution of carbon by diffusion

Austenite – 0.76 wt% C
Ferrite - 0.022 wt% C
Cementite - 6.70 wt% C
PHASE COMPOSITIONS OF THE IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE

Hypoeutectoid steels (carbon content from 0 to 0.83%) consist of primary

proeutectoid) ferrite (according to the curve A3) and pearlite.

Eutectoid steel (carbon content 0.83%) entirely consists of pearlite.

Hypereutectoid steels (carbon content from 0.83 to 2.06%) consist of primary

(proeutectoid) cementite (according to the curve ACM) and pearlite.

Cast irons (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) consist of proeutectoid

cementite C2 ejected from austenite according to the curve ACM , pearlite and
transformed ledeburite (ledeburite in which austenite transformed to pearlite.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
 Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite
starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.

 Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which

cementite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid
alloys.

 Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-

pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist.

 Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which α-

ferrite is ferromagnetic.
AUSTENITE PEARLITE
 Alloys of Iron with carbon

Percentage of carbon

Wrought iron 0 to0.05

Steel 0.05 to 2.0
Cast iron 2 to 6.67
Different phases of Iron-Iron Carbide system
• α (alpha) –Ferrite
It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron
 The maximum solubility of carbon in α at room
temperature is 0.008 percent and 0.022 percent
at 7230 C
 Ferrite is soft, ductile and relatively low in
strength
 Tensile strength 2800 Kg/mm2
Elongation 40 percent in 50 mm
Hardness is very less (less than Rockwell C 0 or B90)
• γ (Gamma) –Austenite
• Austenite is denser than ferrite
• It is interstitial solid solution carbon in FCC iron
• The maximum solubility of carbon in iron up to
2.14 percent at 1147 0 C
• It is soft, ductile, malleable and non magnetic
Cementite (Fe3C) / Iron Carbide
The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 6.67
percent
It is extremely hard, brittle and ductility is very less
PEARLITE Ferrite + cementite -----α+ Fe3C
LEDEBURITE Austenite+ cementite --- γ+ Fe3C
TTT DIAGRAM
Possible transformation involving Austenite Decomposition
As indicated when is cooled to temperatures below LCT, it transforms to other
crystal structures due to its unstable nature. A specific cooling rate may be chosen so
that the transformation of austenite can be 50 %, 100 % etc. If the cooling rate is
very slow such as annealing process, the cooling curve passes through the entire
transformation area and the end product of this the cooling process becomes 100%
Pearlite. In other words, when slow cooling is applied, all the Austenite will
transform to Pearlite. If the cooling curve passes through the middle of the
transformation area, the end product is 50 % Austenite and 50 % Pearlite, which
means that at certain cooling rates we can retain part of the Austenite, without
transforming it into Pearlite.

Upper half of TTT Diagram(Austenite-Pearlite

Transformation Area)
 If a cooling rate is very high, the cooling curve will remain on the left
hand side of the Transformation Start curve. In this case all Austenite will
transform to Martensite. If there is no interruption in cooling the end
product will be martensite.

Lower half of TTT Diagram (Austenite-Martensite and

Bainite Transformation Areas)
MICROSTRUCTURE OF AUSTENITE
 MICROSTRUCTURE OF PEARLITE

Photomicrographs of (a) coarse pearlite and (b) fine pearlite. 3000X

MICROSTRUCTURE OF MARTENSITE
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
Heat treatment of steel may be defined as heating and
cooling operations applied to steel in order to obtain desired
properties
The purpose of heat treatment may be one or more of the
following properties
 To relieve internal or residual stresses
 To improve hardness and tensile strength
 To refine grains : Hall-Petch equation σ = k / (d)1/2
 To improve ductility and toughness
 To change the electrical and magnetic properties
 To produce special micro structures to increase the
machinability and corrosion resistance
Relieving of residual stresses
• ANNEALING
• NORMALIZING
Increasing the Hardness
• HARDENING
• TEMPERING
Heat Treatment Process Variables
Temperature to which the metal or alloy is heated
Time period (Soaking time or Holding time)
Rate of heating or cooling
The quenching (cooling) medium used
SPHERODIZING
Any process of heating and cooling steel that produces a rounded or globular form of
carbide. The spheroidizing methods generally used are:
a.) Prolonged heating at a temperature just below the lower critical temperature,
usually followed by relatively slow cooling.
b.) In the case of small objects of high carbon steels, the spheroidizing result is
achieved more rapidly by prolonged heating to temperatures alternately within and
slightly below the critical temperature range. c. Tool steel is generally spheroidized by
heating to a temperature of 749°-804°C (1380° 1480°F) for carbon steels and higher
for many alloy tool steels, holding at heat from 1 to 4 hours, and cooling slowly in the
furnace.
ANNEALING Heating the steel above 30-50 0 C of A3 temp(910 0 C) for hypo-
eutectoid steel and 30-50 0 C of A31 temp for hypo- eutectoid steel for a soking
time of 60 minutes.
Slowly cool to room temperature usually in the furnace itself (very slow cooling: 0
to 1 0 F
NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a type of heat treatment applicable to ferrous metals only. It
differs from annealing in that the metal is heated to a higher temperature and
then removed from the furnace for air cooling. The purpose of normalizing is
to remove the internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting,
forging, forming, or machining. Stress, if not controlled, leads to metal
failure; therefore, before hardening steel, you should normalize it first to
ensure the maximum desired results. Usually, low-carbon steels do not re-
quire normalizing; however, if these steels are normalized, no harmful effects
result. Castings are usually annealed, rather than normalized; however, some
castings require the normalizing treatment.
 HARDENING PROCESS
Purpose of hardening
 To develop high hardness
 To improve strength and wear resistance
Hardening Process
Step:1
Steel is heated to the austenitic temperature
(above A3 - 910 oC) and kept for 15 to 30 minutes per
25 mm of cross-section-This process mechanism is called
out -of -equilibrium state
Step:2
Rapidly cool in the quenching medium

A new structure is formed called MARTENSITE

Some industrial Quenching media
 5 to 10 percent Caustic soda ------ very drastic quench
 5 to 20 percent brine (NaCl)
 Cold water
 Warm water
 Mineral water (obtained during the refining of crude
petroleum)
 Animal oil
 Vegetable oil (such as linseed, cotton seed and
rapeseed)
 Air------- Least drastic quench
Water is preferred- when hardening plain carbon steels
Oils are suitable- for quenching alloy steels
 Micro Structure of Hardened Steel
 A very rapid rate of cooling transforms austenite
in to martensite
 Slower rate of cooling fine pearlite
 Slowest rate of cooling gives rise to coarse
pearlite
QUENCH CRACKS
 During quenching the surface of the component
cools rapidly and the centre cools slowly
 This results in a non-uniform changes in volume
causes heavy distortion and finally, cracking of the
components
CAUSES OF QUENCHING CRACKS
• Quenching from high temperature to lower temperature
suddenly
• Improper selection of quenching medium
• Delays caused between hardening and tempering
TEMPERING
 After quenching the tensile strength is maximum and
the toughness is minimum
 A steel, hardened as a result of quenching, is reheated
to a temperature below the A1 line (723oC) in order to
modify the martenstic structure of steel.
 Higher the tempering temperature, lower the tensile
strength and higher the toughness
TYPES OF TEMPERING
Low temperature tempering (100 oC- 200oC for
60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 60-64
Medium temperature tempering (200 oC- 300oC
for 60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 40-60
High temperature tempering (300 oC- 600oC for
60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 20-40
• FACTORS ACTING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
STEELS
• GRAIN SIZE
• HEATTREATMENT
• COMPOSITION (ALLOYING ELEMENTS)
Chemical elements added in the steel is called
alloying elements
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Steel
Advantages:
• Greater hardenability
• Less distortion and cracking
• Greater ductility at high strength
• Greater high temperature strength
• Greater stress relief at given hardness
• Better machinability at high hardness
• High elastic ratio and endurance strength.

Disadvantages:
• Tendency toward austenite retention
• Cost
• Special handling
• Temper brittleness in certain grades.
• 1) Killed steel:
It is produced by involving the use of several
deoxidizing elements which act with varying intensities.
The common of these are silicon and aluminum.
• Killed steel, because of greater uniformity in chemical
composition and soundness is used for forging,
carburizing , heat treatment and other applications.
• They are strongly de oxidised and are characterized by
high composition and property uniformity.
• All forging steels and in general, all steels containing
more than 0.25% carbon are killed.
• These types of steels are free from blow holes and
segregation.
• Symbol K stands for killed steel.
• 2) Semi Killed steel:
• It has characteristics intermediate those of killed
or rimmed steels.
• Structural steels containing 0.15 to 0.25% carbon
are generally semi-killed.
• In semi-killed steel, the aim is to produce metal
free from surface blowhole and pipe.
• The surface should have a sound kin of
considerable thickness.
• They are used for general structural applications.
• 3 Rimmed Steel
• The steel is partially deoxidized. Carbon content
is less than 0.25% and manganese content is less
than 0.6%.
• They do not retain any significant percentage of
highly oxidizable elements such as Aluminum,
silicon or titanium.
• These steel are, therefore ideal for rolling, large
number of applications, and is adapted to cold-
bending, cold-forming and cold header
applications.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF
METALS
If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in
properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation

Creep Chemical / Physical

Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

* Beyond a certain limit

 Brief Introduction to Twinning
Definition of Twinning:
• Occurs as a result of shearing across particular lattice
planes
• A region of a crystal in
which the orientation of the
lattice is a mirror image of
the rest of the crystal.

Two basic plastic processes:

• Slip
• Twinning

Twinning compared to slip:

• More complicated deformation than slip
• Twinning produces a volume fraction of the grain with a very
different orientation compared to the rest of the grain
 DISLOCATIONS
Formation of a step on the surface of a crystal by the motion of (a)
edge dislocation and (b) screw dislocation.
How does a dislocation move?
Deformation in a single crystal
• For a single crystal in tension,
slip will occur along a
number of equivalent and
most favorably oriented
planes and directions at
various positions along the
specimen.
• Each step results from the
movement of a large number
of dislocations along the
same slip plane.
155
Resolved Shear Stress, tR
c08f07 

 R = 0
=90°

R =/2
=45° 
=45°

R = 0
=90°

R  cos  cos  156

 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion:  R crss
 R cos  cos 
• In response to an applied tensile or compressive
stress, slip (dislocation movement) in a single crystal begins
when the resolved shear stress reaches some
critical value, tcrss.
• It represents the minimum shear stress required
to initiate slip and is a property of the material
that determines when yielding occurs.
crss
y 
(cos  cos  ) max
157
 Dislocation Motion in Polycrystals

• On the surface of a polished single crystal,
these steps appear as lines (slip lines).
• Slip planes & directions (l, f) change from
one crystal to another.
• tR will vary from one crystal to another.
• The crystal with the largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably oriented) crystals yield
later.

300 mm

Polycrystalline Copper 158

 Deformation by Twinning
c08f12

• In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can occur

by twinning.
• A shear force can produce atomic displacements so that on one
side of the plane (the twin boundary), atoms are located in mirror
image positions to atoms on the other side.
• Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote
dislocation movement. 15
9
TESTING OF MATERIALS
 TESTING OF MATERIALS –
to determine the MECHANICAL
PRPERTIES
Mechanical properties- characteristics of material that
describe its behaviour under the action of external
forces
OBJECTIVES
The knowledge of mechanical properties is
very essential to construct a good structure such as
bridge, off shore platforms etc
Mechanical properties can be determined by
conducting experimental tests on the material
specimen
 DIFFERENT MECHANICAL TESTS
• TENSILE TESTING
• COMPRESSION TESTING
• HARDNESS TESTING
• IMPACT TESTING
 Schematic s-e and - curves  These are simplified schematics which are close to the
curves obtained for some metallic materials like Al, Cu
etc. (polycrystalline materials at room temperature).
 Many materials (e.g. steel) may have curves which are
qualitatively very different from these schematics.
 Most ceramics are brittle with very little plastic
deformation.
 Even these diagrams are not to scale as the strain at
yield is ~0.001 (eelastic ~10–3)
[E is measured in GPa and y in MPa  thus giving
this small strains]
 the linear portion is practically vertical and stuck to
the Y-axis (when efracture and eelastic is drawn to the same
scale).
Note the increasing stress required
for continued plastic deformation

Schematics: not to
formation gained from the test: scale
Young’s modulus
) Yield stress (or proof stress)
Neck
i) Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)
v) Fracture stress

TS- Ultimate Tensile Strength

ubscripts:
y- yield, F,f- fracture,
uniform (for strain)/ultimate (for stress)

Points and regions of the curves are explained in the next slide
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM of DUCTILE
MATERIAL (MILD STEEL)
 COMPRESSION TESTING
• Compression test is carried out on
the brittle materials ( such as
concrete, cast iron, Bricks) to know
the compressive strength, fracture
strength
• It is also carried out on ductile
materials to know the malleability
 Hardness Measurement
• It is defined as the resistance offered by
metals to indentation ( i.e penetration of a
hard object in to the specimen under test)
TYPES OF HARDNESS MEASUREMENT
METHODS
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
1 BRINELL HRDNESS TEST
Forcing a hardened steel ball1,2,5 or 10 mm in diameter, at
a constant load into a flat surface of the metal for 10 to 15
sec
It is denoted in number – Brinell Hardness Number (Bhn)
P- Constant load ;D- Ball diameter;
d- diameter of the impression
• Relationship between Ultimate Tensile strength
(UTS) and Brinell hardness number (Bhn)
UTS (Mpa)= 3.5 Bhn
2. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
 It uses either a diamond cone or hardened steel
ball as the indenter
 Two scales are there for measurement
 B-scales (denoted by HRB) for Copper alloys,
aluminium alloys, soft steels
 C-scales(denoted by HRC) for steel, hardened
steel, hard cast iron
 3 VICKER’S HARDNESS
 The indenter used here, consists of a diamond
in the form of a squarebased pyramid with an
included angle of 1360 between the opposite
faces.

HV= 1.854 ( F/d2 )

where F= Applied load in Kg-f
d= Arithmetic mean of the
two
diagonals d1 and d2
 4 KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
Pyramid based diamond indenter
KHN= 14.22 (P/l2)
where
P= Applied load, Kg-f
l=length of longitudinal diagonal, mm
 IMPACT TEST (ASTM E208)
• To know the impact resistance ( Toughness)-
resistance during shock loading
• Useful in determining the ductile to brittle
transition (DBT) temperature of materials
• To know the sensitivity to surface defects
( notch sensitivity) as it lowers impact
toughness
TYPES
IZOD IMPACT TEST
CHARPY IMPACT TEST
Comparison of Toughness values
 FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• ALLOY CONTENT- Tungsten, Chromium

• Grain Size

• Working/ Forming- whether cold working or

hot working

• Manufacturing defects- such as crack, blow

holes reduce the strength
FRACTURE MECHANICS
 Different Types of Fracture
Based on the Type of Material
 Ductile Fracture
 Brittle Fracture
 Different stages in Ductile fracture
(a ) Early stage of necking
(b) Small voids begin to form within the necked
region
© Voids joining together, producing an internal
crack
(d)Rest of cross section begins to fail at the
periphery by shearing
(e) Final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top
fracture surface) and cone (bottom surface)
fracture
 Difference between ductile and brittle fracture
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture

Accompanied with large plastic Has the movement of crack with neglible
deformation plastic deformation

Slow rate of crack propagation Rapid rate of crack propagation

Surface obtained at fracture is Surface obtained at fracture is

fibrous and with dull colour accompanied with hills and valleys and
shining
Example of material that undergo
ductile fracture are mild steel, Example of material that undergo
brass, gold and lead perfectly brittle fracture are glass, cast
iron and ceramics
 Impact Fracture

ductile fracture brittle fracture

178
 Considering Temperature Effects
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

Impact Energy

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition (Embrittlement)
1. Hydrogen Embrittlement: Hydrogen produces severe embrittlement in
many metals. Even very small amount of hydrogen can cause cracking
in steel and titanium. It may be introduced during melting and entrapped
during solidification, or it may be picked up during heat treatment, acid
pickling, electroplating or welding.

2. Temper Embrittlement: Tempering some steels within 450 - 590 °C

results in temper brittlement, which is manifested by increase in impact
transition temperature. It is due to segregation of certain elements to
grain boundaries, giving local hardening to fracture.

3. Blue Brittleness: Low-carbon steels exhibit two types of aging which

causes an increase in transition temperature: quench aging & strain
aging. Strain aging is the slow increase in hardness in steels finished
by cold work (mainly cold rolling). Blue brittleness is attributed to strain
aging caused by heating cold worked steel to around 205 °C.
180
 Ductile-Brittle Transition
• When ductile metals are subjected to impact loads
at comparatively low temperatures, a transition
occurs from ductile fracture to brittle fracture.
• It depends on
• Alloying elements
• Microstructure of materials
• Grain size (smaller grain size results in lower
transition temperature)
• Size and shape of the specimen
• Stress distribution (biaxial, triaxial)
 Fracture- Based on the temperature and type of stresses

• FATIGUE FRACTURE
It is the failure of material when subjected to
repeated cyclic stresses
• CREEP FRACTURE
Creep may be defined as the slow and progressive
deformation of a material with time under a
constant stress at a temperature approximately
above 0.4 Tm
Tm- Melting temperature of the material
 FATIGUE
• Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can
occur at loads considerably lower than tensile or
yield strengths of material under a static load:
Fatigue
• Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic
structures (bridges, aircraft, machine
components, etc.)
• Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little
plastic deformation) - even in normally ductile
materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
• Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial
(tension or compression), flexural (bending) or
torsional (twisting).
• Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages:
crack initiation in the areas of stress
 σ

σmea Δσ Fluctuatin
g stress
n
σmax

σmin

σmax Δσ Reverse
σmean=
0 σmin time d stress
Cyclic stresses are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean
stress, the range of stress, and the stress ratio
 max   min  min
 mean  R
  max   min 2  max
 Fracture caused by fatique is brittle (even in
ductile materials)

 Fatigue Tests are carried out to determine:

1. The stresses that can be applied over a
specified number of repetitions
2. The life under a specified stress level

 For ferrous metals and alloys the strength of

the material under repeated stress is called
as “Endurance Limit” or “Fatigue Limit”
 For most other materials fatique limit does
not exist. In those the strength under
repeated loading is given by “Fatigue
Strength”
 Endurance Limit: Maximum stressthat
can be applied repeatedly an infinite
number of times (for most steels 35%-
60%)

 Fatigue Strength: Maximum stress that

can be applied repeatedly over a
specified number of load repetitions (for
example 106)

 The relationship b/w stress and number

k: constant n: constant (8-
k
of  repetitions
load
a
N 15) is given by:
Factors Affecting the Fatigue Behavior/Life
 Quality
 Environmental Conditions (temperature,
corrosion)
 Range of Stress
 Frequency of Loading
 Surface Effects (Most cracks start from
the surface. Better design coulb be
utilized to reduce this)
Avoid Round
sharp corners
corners (better
(poor)
 CREEP
 It can be defined as the slow &
progressive (increasingly continuing)
deformation of a material with time
under a constant stress.
 It is both a time & temperature
dependent phenemenon.
 The method of carrying out creep tests is
to subject the specimen to a constant
stress while maintaining the temperature
constant and measuring the extent of
deformation.
 CREEP

• can also be defined as

‘ the slow and progressive
deformation of a material with
time at constant stress.’
• CREEP CURVE
• Factors affecting Creep:

• Load :
• Temperature:
• Composition:
• Grain size
• Heat treatment
• Effect of high temperature:

At Higher temp. the creep rate

increases.
• ‘ structural changes’ takes place.
• Ex :- creep strength for a steam
turbine blade may be that stress
which will produce just 0.2% creep
for 10,000 hours of working at
800oC.
• Load : Creep rate increases as load
increases.
• Temperature: Creep rate increases
as T increases.
• Composition: Pure metals are softer
than alloys , the different phases
present stops the dislocation glide .
Hence creep is more in pure metals.
• Grain size: “Smaller the grain, stronger
the material.”
• But above Equicohessive temp. this
effect will be reversed one.
• Equicohessive temp. (Kelvin) Te > Tm/2
Heat Treatment: This changes the
structure,Obviously the materials
property changes, creep resistance also
changes.