PAULI’S NEUTRINO HYPOTHESIS
Bhuvaneswari.
B
II- M.Sc physics
23PHYAO5
OUTLINE
Introduction
Continuous beta spectrum
The energy paradox
Neutrino hypothesis
Properties of neutrino
Neutrino helicity
Experimental detection of neutrino
The nuclear decays are primarily of three types :
alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay
After the discovery of alpha and beta rays in
1899 by Rutherford, their properties were
studied.
Alpha mode of decay was predominant among
heavy nuclei.(Z > 83)
Beta decay was important because it involved
the light and intermediate nuclei.
The properties of beta particles differed greatly
from that of alpha particles.
The alpha particle was He nuclei and beta particle
was similar to electron with different masses.
The energy distribution of alpha particles were
discrete and the beta particles had a continuous
energy spectrum.
Their range, absorption characteristics and hence
the interactions with matter were entirely different.
The analogy to alpha decay couldn’t explain many
theoretical and conceptual problems.
Radium emitted electron with different velocities covering a range
KAUFFMAN
Reasoned with impure sources i.e the source to contain several elements and
due to scattering of the rays as it passes through.
SCHMIDT
LISE MEITNER AND
OTTO HAHN
WILLIAM
WILSON
KAUFFMAN
Absorption of beta rays were according to exponential law
SCHMIDT
Each decay had groups of beta rays with unique energy
Exponential curve obtained was considered a superposition
of straight lines.
LISE MEITNER AND
OTTO HAHN
WILLIAM
WILSON
KAUFFMAN
SCHMIDT
Assumption: If the electrons are homogeneous, the absorption was exponential
and vice versa.
LISE MEITNER AND
OTTO HAHN
Confirmed Schmidt’s result , the electron absorption was exponential
Supported by the shell model predictions of discrete energy levels and hence
particles emitted with unique energy.
WILLIAM
WILSON
KAUFFMAN
SCHMIDT
Questioned the
criteria of Radium as
exponential source No exponential
absorption for (heterogeneous absorption
homogeneity. ) occurred
LISE MEITNER
AND OTTO HAHN
Studied the Separated The
velocity homogeneous exponential
dependence of part by using absorption
electron magnetic field was not a
WILLIAM absorption criterion for
WILSON homogeneity
KAUFFMAN
SCHMIDT
Electrons lost
Electrons are
energy on rendered Lower values of
passing heterogeneous field indicate
through on passing decrease in
matterf. through matter velocity
LISE MEITNER
AND OTTO HAHN
Low energy experiment of Continous
electrons were passing beta energy
preferentially rays through spectrum
absorbed with the magnetic confirmed and
WILLIAM increasing field before also supported
WILSON thickness of and after by various
absorber pasing through experiments
matter
EXPERIMENT OF WILLIAM WILSON
= a - 0 mm
b - 0.489 mm
c - 1.219 mm
A parent nucleus when it decays , it leaves a product nucleus of a definite energy.
The total energy change must be irrespective of the modes of decay when the
reactants and products are same.
Consider the decay of 212Bi to 208Pb
212
Bi Po + β
212
Q = 2.254Mev 212
Bi 208
Tl + 4He Q= 6.207Mev
212
Po 208
Pb + 4He Q = 8.954 Mev 208
Tl 208
Pb + β Q=5.001 Mev
Total Energy Change = 11.208Mev Total Energy Change = 11.208Mev
The energy change is equal in both modes by considering the energy of the β
particle to be its endpoint energy.(energy of daughter nuclei is very small)
Thus , for mass energy balance , the endpoint energy has to be used.
Average energy would not give such
agreement but it is preferred from the
continuous spectra.
Average energy is only 1/3 rd of the
endpoint energy.
This contradiction finds 2/3 rd of the
energy missing.
Beta decay violated the law of
conservation of energy
The possible solutions were :
to disregard the conservation laws
to account for the missing energy
In 1930 , Wolfgang Pauli hypothesized a new particle called neutrino (ν)to solve this
problem.
The energy was now shared by the daughter nucleus, β particle and the neutrino.
Beta decay was no longer a two body process.
In β- decay :
n p + β- + ν
In β+ decay :
p n + β+ +
The neutrino was given properties to comply with the conservation laws already
established.
PROPERTIES OF NEUTRINO
The neutrino was emitted at the instant of beta decay and were undetectable.
The neutrino has zero charge for the charge to be conserved.
n p + β- + ν
(0) (+1) (-1) (0)
It has a very small mass compared to the mass of electron.
For the angular momentum to be conserved , it should have a spin equal to ½ ħ
(fermi-dirac statistics)
d m ass n p + β- + ν
n mass n p + β + ν
- d
For o r
ve
For e r (ħ) (ħ) (½ ħ) (½ ħ) numb
e (½ ħ) (½ ħ) (½ ħ) (½ ħ)
e
numb
NEUTRINO HELICITY
In non relativistic case
fermions represented by two component
spin states
In the relativistic limit
helicity - a component of the
fermion spin in the direction of
motion of fermion.
Helicity is the projection of spin on the momentum vector.
The spin can be aligned with (helicity-plus) or against (helicity-minus) the
momentum.
Helicity is not invariant under Lorentz transformation.
Helicity of a neutrino is dependent of the frame
of the observer.
If we are moving in the same direction of the
spinning body, it goes forward or backward or
at rest depending on the velocity of our motion
Helicity is not an inherent property.
right handed , left handed ,
An object that cannot be superimposed on its
helicity plus helicity minus
mirror image are called chiral.
Chirality is an inherent property.
By nature all neutrinos are left chiral and
antineutrinos right chiral.
EXPERIMENTAL DETECTION OF NEUTRINO
Clyde cowan and Frederick Reines were the first to detect
the neutrino in 1956.
The principle was to observe the inverse β- decay
+p n + β+
The antineutrino flux from nuclear reactor was bombarded
on a hydrogenous material.
The neutron released collides with proton and loses
energy.
Cadmium being a neutron absorber captures the neutron by
(n,γ) reaction.
The positron annihilates with an electron and releases
gamma radiation.
The gamma rays due to these are measured by the scintillation counters
Aftera prompt pulse due to annihilation of the electron positron pair , a
delayed pulse occurs after several microseconds.
By experiment , it was inferred that the prompt pulses are only due to
annihilation and delayed pulses were only due to the neutrons
This confirms the antineutrino(then indistinguishable with neutrino)
induced reaction.
The ν +capture
inverse orbital electron n p + β- (Due to crossed
reaction symmetry)
If the neutrino and antineutrino were identical DISTINGUISHED
NEUTRINO AND
+n p + β- ANTINEUTRINO !!
N AN D 𝛎
W A
CO S γ γ
N E SCINTILLATION
REI IM E NT e COUNTER
X P E R
E β+ TARGET TANK
n p WITH CADMIUM
SCINTILLATION
PRINCIPLE: DELAYED COUNTER
γ γ
COINCIDENCE METHOD
TARGET TANK
DELAY FOR COINCIDENCE- WITH CADMIUM
30μs
SCINTILLATION
COUNTER
REFERENCES
“Nuclear physics”,Irving Kaplan,Addison-Wesley,2nd edition1964.
Allan Franklin,”William Wilson and absorption of beta rays”,2002
W.Wilson,”On the absorption of homogeneous beta rays by matter and on the
variation of the absorption of the rays with velocity”,1909
F.Reines and C.L.Cowans.Jr,”Detection of the free neutrino”,1953
F.Reines and C.L.Cowans.Jr “Detection of the free antineutrino”,1960
James Dodd , Ben gripaios,” The ideas of particle physics”,fourth edition,2020
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KIND ATTENTION AND
PATIENCE
