CHE 101

General
Chemistry
Dr. Md. Arzu Miah
Post Doc. ( KAIST, S. Korea), PhD (Veinna, Austria), M.Sc & B.Sc in Chemistry (JU)
Professor
Department of Chemistry
Jahangirnagar University
Savar, Dhaka-1342
Cell: 01732150725
[email protected]
 Chapter 7: Quantum Theory and the
Electronic Structure of Atoms
7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory
 7.2 The Photoelectric Effect
7.3 Bohrs Theory of Hydrogen Atom
7.4 The Dual Nature of Electron
 7.5 Quantum Mechanics
7.6 Quantum Numbers
7.7 Atomic Orbital's
7.8 Electron Configuration
7.9 The Building-Up Principle

2
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory

• What is Classical Mechanics?

• Classical mechanics is the study of macroscopic bodies.

• Classical mechanics has three different branches. They are, namely,

• Newtonian mechanics,
• Lagrangian mechanics, and
• Hamiltonian mechanics.

• In classical mechanics, energy is treated as a continuous quantity.

• .
• What is Quantum Mechanics?
• Quantum mechanics is the study of microscopic bodies. The
term “quantum” comes from the fact that energy of a
microscopic system is quantized.

What is the difference between Classical Mechanics and

Quantum Mechanics?

 • Quantum mechanics is applied to microscopic bodies whereas

classical mechanics is only applicable to macroscopic bodies.

 • Classical mechanics is a fully developed field whereas

quantum mechanics is still a developing field.
1873: Maxwell and Electromagnetic Wave

• Max well’s wave theory says, emission of energy

is continuous.

• In case of light – energy is emitted or absorbed

in the form of packet or bundles – called
Photon (In stead of quantum).

• Photon is not a material body, non massive

substance.
 James Clerk Maxwell (1873)
Visible light consists of electro -magnetic waves
Electromagnetic
radiation is the
emission and
transmission of
energy in the form
of electromagnetic
waves.
Speed of light (c) in vacuum = 3.00 x 108 m/s
All electromagnetic radiation
lxn=c
1. wavelength
2. amplitude
3. frequency.
Characteristics of electromagnetic waves
1)EM waves always travel at speed of light
= 3×108m/s
2)EM waves can travel through vacuum.
3)EM waves consists of mutually perpendicular
time varying electric and magnetic fields.
4)EM waves do have characteristics like wavelength
, amplitude and frequency.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
• EM Radiation is often described by its
wavelength, the distance from one crest to
the next
• The longer the wavelength, the lower the
radiation energy
l (wavelength)
 1900: Planck and Quanta

• Planck’s Quantum Theory of radiation.

(Quantum- Latin word which means how much)

 1. A hot (black) body emits radiant energy not continuously but discontinuously

(discretely).

 In other words, a hot (black) body emits radiant energy not as continuous wave but

as small packets, a bundle or discrete (separate) units of the wave, each of this unit

is called a quantum (Pl- Quanta) .

 2. The energy E, associated with each quantum or photon of given radiation or light
is proportional to the frequency, , of the emitted radiation or light i.e.

 3. The total energy of the radiation emitted or absorbed will be some whole number
quanta.
 E = nhv when n is integer
 Plank’s Quantum Theory
• E 
• E =h [h is Planck constant]
• Where,
• E = Energy of the EM radiation
• h = Planck’s constant 6.624 10  27 erg .s or 6.624 10  34 Joul.s.
• ν = Frequency of radiation
c


c
E h 

 Black Body Radiation
A black body is a body that completely absorbs all
the electromagnetic radiation falling into it
Heated Iron Ball (Black Body)

(a) Max well Theory (b) Planck's Theory of radiation

Figure: Black body radiation

Continuously Discontinuously
Photon (discretely)
Quantum
 1905: Einstein and Photons

Photon
A particle (or quantum) of light or other electromagnetic
radiation, which has no intrinsic mass and can therefore travel at
the speed of light.

It is an elementary particle and the basic unit of light, and

effectively carries the effects of the electromagnetic force.
 7.2 Photoelectric Effect
When a metallic surface is exposed to electromagnetic
radiation above a certain threshold frequency (typically
visible light and x-rays), the light is absorbed and electrons
are emitted. This effect is call Photoelectric Effect.

Light has Both:

1. wave nature
2. particle nature
Photon is a “particle” of light
Light is Photon
Light is Quantum of Energy
Light is EMW
Ejected electrons are called Photoelectron
 Quantum theory
Quantum theory:

 1) Energy is emitted due to vibrations of charged particles in the black body.

 2) The radiation of energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the form of

small discrete energy packets called quanta.

 3) Each quantum is associated with definite amount of energy which is given by

the equation E=hν.
Where, h = planck's constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J. sec = 6.625 x10-27 erg. sec

 4) The total energy of radiation is quantized i.e., the total energy is an integral
multiple of hν. i.e. 1 hν or 2 hν or 3 hν.
 It cannot be the fractional multiple of hν.

 5) Energy is emitted and absorbed in the form of quanta but propagated in the
form of waves.

 TYPES OF SPECTRA & HYDROGEN ATOMIC SPECTRUM

When electromagnetic radiation is passed

through a prism or grating it is split up and
forms a collection of lines representing
different wavelengths. This is called
spectrum.

The spectra can be divided into two types

viz., emission and absorption spectra. The
differences between them are given below.
 Emission Spectrum and Absorption Spectrum

• 1) The emission spectrum is obtained due to emission of radiation

from the substances.
• The absorption spectrum is obtained when the substance absorbs
the radiation.

• 2) White lines are formed on the black background.

• Black lines are formed on the white background.

• 3) Formed when atoms or molecules are de-excited from higher

energy level to lower energy level.
• Formed when atoms or molecules are excited from lower energy
level to higher energy levels.
Line Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen Atoms

21
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
VIBGYOR
25
The most obvious type of
radiation is visible light.

Its wavelength range is

from 400 - 700 nm
7.3 Bohrs Theory of Hydrogen Atom

Basic Postulates of Bohr’s model

 Basic Postulates of Bohr’s model
1. Atom has a very small nucleus on its centre. Protons and neutrons are contained in the nucleus.
2. Electrons are moving round the nucleus in the same way as planets are revolving round the sun.
3. Fixed Circular Orbits : Electrons are moving round the nucleus with a definite velocity in concentric
circular orbit situated at definite (fixed) distance from the nucleus.
4. Stationary Energy Level : In a particular orbit electrons neither emits nor absorb energy i.e.
constant i.e. stationary. Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy-quantum of
energy. This orbit is called stationary energy level or simply energy level represented by n= 1, 2,3.4
etc.
Thus the Principal quantum number n 1, 2, 3, 4
Letter designation  K(1st), L(2nd), M(3rd) etc.
5. Jumping of an electron from one energy level to other – ground state to excited state
6. Principle of quantization of angular momentum of the moving electrons. Angular momentum of A
moving electron mvr is an integral whole number multiple of h/2, 2h/2, 3h/24h/2 etc.
mvr = n.h/2, where h= Planck constant = 6.624x10-27 erg.s
 Derivation of Bhor’s Equation for H atom

1. Fixed Circular Orbits : Electrons are moving round the nucleus

with a definite velocity in concentric circular orbit situated at
definite (fixed) distance from the nucleus.

FCentrifugal = mv2/r
FCentripetal = Ze2/r2

mv2/r = Ze2/r2 ……………………(1)

 Solving for r, we have

--------(2)

If we multiply the right hand side of equation (2) by m/m, we find,

= --------(3)

The numerator in equation (3) is the electron’s angular momentum

squared, (mvr)2. Bohr’, asserts that the angular momentum, mvr, can
only take on certain values, which are whole-number multiples of
h/2π; i.e.,

n = 1, 2, 3 etc. where h is Planck’s constant.

• Substituting nh/2π for mvr in equation (3) we obtain the Bohr expression
for the radius:

-----(4)
For the hydrogen atom (Z = 1), the smallest radius, given the
symbol ao is obtained from equation (4) when n = 1:

= 0.529 Å -----------(5)

This is called the Bohr radius. Using the definition of ao in

equation (5), we can rewrite equation (4) to obtain a more
compact form of the radius equation for any one-electron atom:

-----(6)
• Since is ao constant, equation (6) predicts that the
radius increases in direct proportion to the square of
the quantum number, n2, and decreases in inverse
proportion to the atomic number, Z.

• Thus, the sizes of the orbits in hydrogen are predicted

to be ao, 4ao, 9ao, 16ao, 25ao, etc.
 The derivation of the energy equation
• Electron in its orbit has both kinetic (K) and potential energy (U), Total energy
E is given by
E = K + U.
• The kinetic energy, which arises from electron due to motion, is K = ½mv2.
• The potential energy, which arises from the coulombic attraction between the
negative charge of the electron and the positive charge in the nucleus, is given
by
U = –Ze2/r.
• Thus, Total energy of the electron is

• …………………….-(7)

In Bohr’s model the coulombic/centripetal force is assumed to be equal and opposite to

the centrifugal force . We can rearrange equation (1) to obtain an expression for mv2:
From Equation (1), We have,

mv2/r = Ze2/r2

……………………………….(8)
Substituting this into the first term in equation (7) we obtain

…….(9)
The negative sign in equation (9) indicates a favorable energy of attraction, which must be
overcome to remove the electron to an infinite distance from the nucleus. We can eliminate r
from equation (9) by substituting equation (4):

As equation (10) shows, the energy becomes more favorable (negative) in direct
proportion to the square of the nuclear charge, and less favorable (less negative) in
inverse proportion to the square of the quantum number.
From equation (10), we get the total energy of an electron in an orbit or energy level
n as En i.e.
 The radii and energies of the first four orbits for the electron in the hydrogen atom
according to the Bohr model.

Radius of
Quantum Energy/eV
orbit
number, n
1 a0 −13.6
2 4 a0 −3.4
3 9 a0 −1.5
4 16 a0 −0.85
 Transition of electron
Energy absorved
Electron
= E2 - E1= h Energy emitted
= E2 - E1= h

Electron

+ E1 E2
+ E1 E2

E2 E2
Nucleus

E1 E1
Absorption of Energy Emission of Energy
 Structure of Atom

n=7
n=6 Circular Orbit
(Energy Level)
n=5 e
n=4
n=3
n=2
n=1
E1 Nucleus
E2
E3
E4 K
E5
E6 L
E7
M
N
Energy Increasing
O
P
Q

E1  E2  E3  E4  E5  E6  E7
• When an electron passes from one energy level (orbit) to another of lower energy,
radiation is emitted whose energy equals the energy difference between the initial
and final states. If we indicate the energy of the higher level as E 2 and that of lower
as E1, then the difference may be expressed as-

• E2
E2

E1
E1
------(11) Emission of Energy
Absorption of Energy

-----12)

We have, Wave number,

where c is the velocity of light, we may
combine equation 10 and 13 to give
= ---(13)
 -------(14)

All the term in fraction are constant ; if Z = 1,

for hydrogen atom, the value of the constant is

Where, R is the Redberg constant,

------- (15).
 How is Spectral Series Produced

Screen

Prism Different Spectral Lines

+ Anode Slit
Lens
Dark Space
H2

2H

- Cathod

Discharge Tube containing hydrogen gas at low presure

 Spectral line
Spectral Line Discoverer Appearing in

Lyman Series Lyman UV

Balmer Series Balmer Visible

Paschen Series Paschen IR

Brackett Series Paschen IR

Pfund Series Pfund IR

 Bohr’s Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum
Electron (pink- cloured ball, ) in Energy
Level 1 (n=1), Ground State
n=7

+ Anode n=6
n=5
Electronic Transition
H2 n=4
n=3
n=2
n=1 1 2
1 3
2H 1 4
- Cathod 1 5
1 6
Nucleus 1 7

Fig. Discharge Tube containing Figure: Jump of Hhydrogen electron from the lowest energy
hydrogen gas at low presure level 1( n=1, ground state) to higher energhy leves 2( n=2),
3(n=3) etc.
What happens-

(a) The hydrogen molecule breaks down into atoms and absorbs energy from the electric spark and the
solitary electron (1st energy level) gets excited, i.e. the electron shifts from energy level 1 (Ground state)
to any higher energy level depending on the amount of energy absorbed by the atoms of hydrogen.

(b) When the electron reaches in the higher energy levels it is said to be in the excited state and has a
tendency to come back to one of the lower energy levels or even lowest energy level (ground state) after a
short interval of time.

(c) On going from higher to lower energy level, electron emits energy in the form of photon and produce
spectral line in the emission spectrum.

(d) The appearance of spectral lines in the the emission spectrum. of H-atom is due to the jump of hydrogen
elecron from the higher energy levels to lower energy levels or even to the lowest energy level.
 Spectral line in H-Atom
Electron

6
5
Pfund Series
4
Brackett
Series
3 Paschen
Series
2
Balmer
Series
1
Lyman
Series
Figure : Jumping of Electron from higher energy level to lower energy level
and thus producing a series of emission spectral line
a) Lyman Series: when the electron jumps from any higher stationary orbit to
first stationary orbit, the spectral lines falls in the Lyman series. For Lyman
series, n1=1.

n2=2, 3, 4…

b) Balmer Series: when the electron jumps from any higher stationary orbit to
the second stationary orbit with n=2, the spectral lines falls in the Balmer Series.
n1=2.
n2= 3, 4, 5…

c) Paschen Series: when the electron falls from any higher stationary orbit to
third stationary orbit with n=3, the spectral lines falls in the Paschen Series. Here
n1=3

n2=4, 5, 6…
d) Brackett Series: when the electron jumps from any higher stationary orbit to
fourth stationary orbit with n=4, the spectral lines fall in Bracket Series. Here,
n1=4

n2= 5, 6, 7…

e) Pfund Series: when the electron from any higher stationary orbit jumps to
fifth stationary orbit with n=5, the spectral lines falls in Pfund Series. Here,
n1=5

n2=6, 7, 8…

f) Humphrey Series: when the electron falls from any higher stationary orbit to
sixth stationary orbit with n=6, the spectral lines falls in Humphrey Series.
Here n1=6
n2=7, 8, 9…
 de Broglie’s Concept of Matter Wave

French Physicist Lonius de Broglie

All matter particles in motion (electron, protons, neutrons,

atoms, or molecules) posses characteristics of both a particle
and a wave.

The wave associated with the matter particles is called de

Broglie matter wave.

This concept is known as wave-particle duality in matter.

Planck’s equation,
E = h
From Plank equation
Einstein mass-energy relation , E hv,
c
E=mc 2 But , v 

c
de Broglie derived a mathematical  E h.
equation which gives the magnitude of 
wavelength  of a moving electron in From Einstein mass  energy relation
terms of its mass and velocity v,
E mc 2
• This equation is called de Broglie Equation and 
is called the de Broglie wave length c
E h.

c
mc 2 h.

h
h mc 
 (1) 
mv
h
 (2)
mc
 Heisenbereg’s Uncertainty Principle

• Heisenbereg’s Uncertainty Principle says that

“It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact velocity
(momentum) of a sub-atomic particle like electron and neutron”.

Mathematically,
• If ∆x is the error (or uncertainty) in the measurement of the position and ∆p
represents the uncertainty in the measurement of the momentum of a sub-atomic
particle like electron and neutron, we may write,
• ∆x. ∆p ≥ h ∕2π
• Where h is the Planck’s constant
 1888 : The Rydberg Formula
• The formula for the spacing of spectral lines in
hydrogen-like atoms was derived by Swedish
scientist Johannes Rydberg and presented on
November 5, 1888
Frequency-Wavelength Conversions

• What’s the wavelength of radiation that has a

frequency of 5.00 x 1014 Hz?

c
l =
5.00 x 1014 Hz

c is 3.0 x 108 m/s

Frequency-Wavelength Conversions

• What’s the wavelength of radiation that has a

frequency of 5.00 x 1014 Hz?

3.0 x 108 m/s

l =
5.00 x 1014 Hz

Hz is the same as 1/s

Frequency-Wavelength Conversions

• What’s the wavelength of radiation that has a

frequency of 5.00 x 1014 Hz?

l = 6.0 x 10-7 m

That’s the same as 600 nm and

corresponds to yellow-orange
light
A photon has a frequency of 6.0 x 104 Hz. Convert this frequency
into wavelength (nm). Does this frequency fall in the visible
region?

lxn=c
l
l = c/n
= 3.00 x 108 m/s / 6.0 x 104 Hz
n
= 5.0 x 10 m
3

= 5.0 x 1012 nm

55
The energy E of a single quantum of energy is

E=hxn
h = 6.63 x 10-34 J•s, Planck’s constant
ν = frequency of radiation
Because c =   or  = c / ,
so, E = h x c / l
According to quantum theory, energy is always
emitted in multiple of h ; e.g., h, 2h, 3h ….. but
never 1.67 h or 4.98 h
 Problem -1 :
What is the maximum number of emission lines when the excited electron of an
H atom in n = 6 drops to the ground state?

Solution:
When the excited electron of an H atom in n = 6 drops to the
ground state, the following transitions are possible:
Hence, a total number of
(5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1) 15
lines will be obtained in
the emission spectrum.
 The number of spectral lines produced when an electron in
the nth level drops down to the ground state is given by

Given,
n=6
Number of spectral lines
= 15
 Problem-2:
(i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is –2.18 × 10 –18 J atom–1. What is the energy associated with the fifth orbit?
(ii) Calculate the radius of Bohr’s fifth orbit for hydrogen atom.

Solution :
(i) Energy associated with the fifth orbit of hydrogen atom is
calculated as:

(ii) Radius of Bohr’s nth orbit for

hydrogen atom is given by,

E = –8.72 × 10 J –20
rn = (0.0529 nm) n2
5

For, n = 5
r5 = (0.0529 nm) (5)2
r5 = 1.3225 nm
 Problem-3
Calculate the wave number for the longest wavelength transition in the Balmer series of atomic hydrogen.

Solution:
For the Balmer series, ni = 2. Thus, the expression of
wavenumber is given by,

Wave number is inversely proportional to

wavelength of transition. Hence, for the longest
wavelength transition, has to be the smallest.
• For to be minimum, nf should be minimum
• For the Balmer series, a transition from ni = 2
to nf = 3 is allowed. Hence, taking nf = 3, we
get:

• = 1.5236 × 106 m–1

 Problem-4
Calculate (1) the frequency and (2) the energy per quantum for electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength of 580 nm.

• Solution:
• (1) ν = c / λ = (3.00 x 108 m s-1) / (580 x 10-9 m)
• = 5.17 x 1014 Hz
• Note that frequency is denoted by the symbol ν (" nu "),
and the units are Hertz which are equivalent to s-1. Also
take note of the units used for length which must be in
metres to be consistent with energy in Joules.
• (2) E = h c / λ
• = (6.626 x 10-34 J s) x (3.00 x 108 m s-1) / (580 x 10-9 m)
• = 3.43 x 10-19 J
Problem -5
(1) Calculate the wavelength of a photon that has a frequency of 1.20 x 10 15 Hz
(2) What is the energy of the photon in joules per photon?
(3) What is the energy in kJ mol-1 of photons?
(4) What is the name usually given to such radiation? (ie what region of the electromagnetic
spectrum does it belong to?)

Solution:
• (1) λ = c / n = (3.00 x 108 m s-1) / (1.20 x 1015 s-1) = 2.50 x 107
m
• (2) E = h n = (6.626 x 10-34 J s) x (1.20 x 1015 s-1) = 7.95 x 10-19 J
• (3) There are NA photons in 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023. Therefore
the energy of 1 mole of photons = (6.022 x 10 23 mol-1) x (7.95
x 10-19 J)
• = 479 kJ mol-1.
• (4) A wavelength of 250 nm corresponds to light in the
ultraviolet region.
Why is e- energy quantized?
De Broglie (1924) reasoned that
e- is both particle and wave.

2pr = nl h
l = mu

u = velocity of e-
m = mass of e-

64
 Quantum Mechanics
 Bohr’s approach did not account for the emission spectra of
atoms containing more than one electrons (He, Li).
 When electrons are wavelike, how can the “position” of a
wave be specified?
 To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic
particle that behaves like a wave, Werner Heisenberg
formulated the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

It is impossible to know simultaneously both the

momentum p (defined as mass times velocity) and
the position of a particle with certainty.

65
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that described both the particle and
wave nature of the e− given by

Eψ = Hψ

E= Energy of Electron, H = Hamiltonian Operator

Ψ = Wave function

Ψ2= Probability of finding e- in a volume of space

The wave functions that are derived from Schrödinger's equation for a specific
atom are also called atomic orbitals.
Chemists define an atomic orbital as the region within an atom that encloses
where the electron is likely to be 90% of the time.

Schrodinger’s equation can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom.
66
Schrodinger Wave Equation
y is a function of three numbers called
quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
principal quantum number n
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….

Distance of e- from the nucleus

n=1 n=2 n=3

67
The spheres like nested shells separated by
nodes — areas where there is no electron
density.
Node

69
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

angular momentum quantum number l

for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1

n = 1, l = 0
l=0 s orbital
n = 2, l = 0 , 1 l=1 p orbital
n = 3, l = 0, 1, 2 l=2 d orbital
l=3 f orbital
Shape of the “volume” of space that the e- occupies

70
l = 0 (s orbitals)

l = 1 (p orbitals)

71
l = 2 (d orbitals)

72
Schrodinger Wave Equation
quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

Magnetic quantum number ml

for a given value of l

ml = -l, …., 0, …. +l

if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1
if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2

Orientation of the orbital in space

73
ml = -1, 0, or 1 3 orientations is space

74
ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2 5 orientations is space

75
ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 7 orientations is space
The f orbital.
 Schrodinger Wave Equation

(n, l, ml, ms)

spin quantum number ms
ms = +½ or -½

ms = +½ ms = -½

78
 Number of Orbital Number of
n l ml orbital’s Name electrons
1 0 0 1 1s 2
2 0 0 1 2s 2
1 -1, 0, +1 3 2p 6
3 0 0 1 3s 2
1 -1, 0, +1 3 3p 6
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5 3d 10
4 0 0 1 4s 2
1 -1, 0, +1 3 4p 6
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5 4d 10
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 7 4f 14
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
Quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

Shell – electrons with the same value of n

Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and l

Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and ml

How many electrons can an orbital hold?

If n, l, and ml are fixed, then ms = ½ or - ½
y = (n, l, ml, ½)or y = (n, l, ml, -½)
An orbital can hold 2 electrons
80
 ELECTRON ADDRESSES

• #1 Shell number, n  Average distance from

nucleus
• #2 Subshell type, l  Region shape
• #3 Orbital, m  Region orientation
• #4 Spin, s  Direction of e- rotation

These four address components (n, l, m, and s)

are called quantum numbers in more formal
treatments
 SHELL POPULATIONS

The innermost shell can hold 2 e-’s

The second shell can hold 8 e-’s
The third shell can hold 18 e-’s
The fourth shell can hold 32 e-’s
 2

18

32

First, note the difference between successive

numbers.
2
6
8
10
18
14
32
2
6
8
Now, repeat the
10
process
18
14
32
2
6
8 4
10
18 4
14
32
2

6
See the
8 4
pattern?
10
18 4
14
32
2
6
8 4
10
18 4 Aha!
14
32 4
18
2
6
8 4
10
18 4 Aha!
14
32 4
18
50
2 To extract the underlying
formula, divide each number by
8 2

18

32

50
2/2 = 1
To extract the underlying
formula, divide each number
8/2 = 4 by 2

18/2 = 9

32/2 = 16

50/2 = 25
2/2 = 1

8/2 = 4
Note that this is now a
series of perfect
18/2 = 9 squares of integers...

32/2 = 16

50/2 = 25
2/2 = 1 = 12

8/2 = 4 = 22
Note that this is now a
series of perfect
18/2 = 9 = 32 squares of integers...

32/2 = 16 = 42

50/2 = 25 = 52
2/2 = 1 = 12

8/2 = 4 = 2 2 The fomula is 2n2

where n is the shell
18/2 = 9 = 32 number

32/2 = 16 = 42 The formula for calculating

the maximum number of
electrons which a particular
50/2 = 25 = 52
shell can accomodate = 2n2
 Shell population = 2n2

• 1st shell  2 (12) = 2 (1) = 2

• 2nd shell  2 (22) = 2 (4) = 8
• 3rd shell  2 (32) = 2 (9) = 18
• 4th shell  2 (42) = 2 (16) = 32
• 5th shell  2 (52) = 2 (25) = 50
 Electron shells
 Population given by 2n2
n=3
 E.g., 3rd shell has 2
(32) = 2 (9) = 18 e-
n=2

n=1
2 e-

2(22) = 8 e-
nucleus

2(32) = 18 e-
 How many electrons make up the 6th
shell?

1. 18
2. 36
3. 72
4. 144
 Shell population = 2n2

• 1st shell  2 (12) = 2 (1) = 2

• 2nd shell  2 (22) = 2 (4) = 8
• 3rd shell  2 (32) = 2 (9) = 18
• 4th shell  2 (42) = 2 (16) = 32
• 5th shell  2 (52) = 2 (25) = 50
 Electron shells
 Population given by 2n2
 E.g., 3rd shell has 2(32)
= 2 (9) = 18 e-
n=2

n =1
2 e-

2(22) = 8 e-
nucleus
 Population given by 2n2
 E.g., 3rd shell has n =3
2 (32)
= 2 (9) = 18 e-
n =2

n =1
2 e-

2(22) = 8 e-
nucleus

2(32) = 18 e-
 Electron shells
 Population given by 2n2
n=3
 E.g., 3rd shell has
2(32) = 2 (9) = 18 e-
n=2

n=1
2 e-

2(22) = 8 e-
nucleus

2(32) = 18 e-
 #2 - Subshells
• Within each shell there are subshells (or
sublevels)
• Four kinds to learn
s spherical (sharp)
p 2-lobes (principal)
d 4-lobes (diffuse)
f 6- or 8-lobes (fundamental)
Subshell (sublevel) shapes

s (1 lobe) p (2 lobes)

d (4 lobes) f (6 or 8 lobes)
Available subshells (sublevels)
• 1st shell s
• 2nd shell s p
• 3rd shell s p d
• 4th shell s p d f
 We use numbers to distinguish between
subshells of the same type in different
layers
Available subshells (sublevels)
• 1st shell 1s
• 2nd shell 2s 2p
• 3rd shell 3s 3p 3d
• 4th shell 4s 4p 4d 4f

• This completes the first two parts of the

electron address
n
Available subshells (sublevels)
• 1st shell 1s
• 2nd shell 2s 2p
• 3rd shell 3s 3p 3d
• 4th shell 4s 4p 4d 4f

• This completes the first two parts of the

electron address
n l
s Subshells

1s
2s
s Subshells

1s
2s
3s
p Subshells
p Subshells

2p 2p
 p Subshells

3p 2p 2p 3p
 p Subshells

4p 3p 2p 2p 3p 4p
 Subshell Orientations(Orbital)
• Subshells have a number of orientations
associated with their type. Individual
orientations of a subshell are called Atomic
orbitals

 s subshell 1 orientation
 p subshell 3 orientations
 d subshell 5 orientations
 f subshell 7 orientations
 Shell Subshell Orbitals Total
e-’s
1 1s 1 2 2
2 2s 1 2
8
2p 3 6

3 3s 1 2
3p 3 6 18
3d 5 10
 Atomic Orbital

A space in an atom where an

electron is most likely to be found.
An orbital is a three dimensional description of
the most likely location of an electron around
an atom.
 Orbit & Orbital
Orbit Orbital
1. An orbit is a definite circular 1. An orbital is defined as a three-
path at a definite distance from dimensional region or space
the nucleus in which the electron around the nucleus in which the
revolves round the nucleus. probability of finding an electron
• Orbits are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 with a certain energy is maximum.
…….from the nucleus and are
designated by the capital letters
K, L, M, N ……etc
2. An orbit represents the planar 2. An orbital represents the three-
motion of the electron. dimensional motion of the electron
round the nucleus
3. The maximum number of 3. An orbital cannot accommodate
electrons in an orbit is equal to more than two electrons. These
2n2 two electrons must have opposite
spins.
4. Orbits are circular in shape 4. Orbital have different shapes, s-
spherical, p-dumbell . etc.
 Quantum Numbers

n shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
l subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
ml orbital - l ... 0 ... +l
ms electron spin +1/2 and - 1/2
 Spin Quantum Number, ms
North South

- N

S
-

Electron aligned with Electron aligned against

magnetic field, magnetic field,
ms = + ½ ms = - ½
The electron behaves as if it were spinning about an axis through its center.
This electron spin generates a magnetic field, the direction of which depends
onBursten,
Brown, LeMay, the Chemistry
direction
The Centralof the2000,spin.
Science, page 208
 Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals

1. Aufbau Principle
– Electrons occupy the positions of the lowest energy
2. Hund’s Rule
– Electrons in the same sublevel occupy empty
orbitals rather than pair up
3. Pauli exclusion principle
– no two electrons in an atom have the same four
quantum number’s

*Aufbau is German for “building up”

 General Rules
6d

1. Aufbau Principle 7s
5f

6p 7s
6d
5f
5d 6p
– Electrons fill the 6s
4f

5p 6s
5d
4f

lowest energy 4d

4p
5s
5s
5p
4d

orbitals first. 4s
3d 4p
3d
3p 4s

– “Lazy Tenant Energy 3s 3p

3s
Rule” 2p
2s 2p
2s

1s
1s

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

 General Rules
2. Hund’s Rule
– Within a sublevel, place one electron per
orbital before pairing them.
– “Empty Bus Seat Rule”

WRONG RIGHT
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
 General Rules
3. Pauli Exclusion Principle Wolfgang Pauli

– Each orbital can hold TWO electrons with opposite

spins.
 Order of Fill

Electrons are placed into the orbitals is based on the order of their energy.
This is referred to as the Aufbau principle.
Order in which subshells are filled with
electrons
1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 2 2 6 2 6 2 10
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d …
6 2 10
 Shorthand Configuration

A neon's electron configuration (1s22s22p6)

B third energy level

[Ne] 3s1
C one electron in the s orbital

D orbital shape

Na = [1s22s22p6] 3s1 electron configuration

 8
O
Notation 15.9994

• Orbital Diagram

O
8e- 1s 2s 2p
• Electron Configuration

1s 2s 2p 2 2 4
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
 16
S
Notation 32.066

• Longhand Configuration

S 16e 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
- 2 2 6 2 4

Core Electrons Valence Electrons

• Shorthand Configuration

S 16e -
[Ne] 3s 3p 2 4
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
 The Periodic Table
1s 1s
2s
f-block elements 2p
3s 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
6s 5d 6p
7s 6d 7p

4f
5f
 Stability
• Full energy level
• Full sublevel (s, p, d, f)
• Half-full sublevel
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

What’s the electron configuration for a neutral
bromine atom?
1. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
2. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
3. [Ar]4s23d104p5
4. [Ar] 3d104s24p5
 What’s the electron configuration for a
neutral bromine atom?
1. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
2. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
3. [Ar]4s23d104p5
4. [Ar] 3d104s24p5

They’re ALL correct

just different variations!
What’s the electron configuration for
a neutral bromine atom?
1. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
2. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
3. [Ar]4s23d104p5
4. [Ar] 3d104s24p5
 What’s the electron configuration for a
neutral bromine atom?
1. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 (handout order)
2. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5 (layer order)
3. [Ar]4s23d104p5 (noble gas + handout order)
4. [Ar] 3d104s24p5 (noble gas + layer order)

They’re ALL correct

just different variations!
 Electron Removal Order
• When forming cations, you remove
electrons from the outermost layer first
• Sometimes requires you to regroup
notation in layer order
 Forming Fe cation
2+

 Fe neutral atom: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6

 regrouped:
1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2

 Fe2+ cation: 1s22s22p63s23p63d6

 (2 outermost e-’s
removed)
What is the electron configuration for a
Zn2+ cation?
1. [Ar]4s23d10 nope, neutral Zn atom
2. [Ar]3d10 yep, lost highest n-level e-’s
3. [Ar]4s23d8 nope, lost inner 3d e-’s
4. [Ar]4s23d104p2 nope, it GAINED 2 e-’s!
Atomic Orbital: Atomic Orbital is a mathematical function that describes
the wave-like behavior of an electron.

Name of the Quantum Number

Shell: A shell is given the principal quantum number.

Sub shell: A sub shell is given the angular momentum quantum number.
Orbital: An orbital is given the magnetic quantum number.

Maximum Number of Electrons

Shell: A shell can hold up to a maximum of 32 electrons.

Sub shell: The maximum number of electrons that a sub shell can hold
depends on the type of sub shell.
Orbital: The maximum number of electrons that an orbital can hold is 2.

Shell Population: The formula for calculating the maximum number of

electrons which a particular shell can accomodate = 2n2
 What we Learned

1. Difference between the Classical Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics

2. A Journey from Classical Physics to Quantum Theory
3. The Photoelectric Effect
4. Black Body Radiation
4. Bohrs Theory of Hydrogen Atom
5. Absorption and Emission Spectrum
5. The Dual Nature of Electron
6. Quantum Model of H atom
7. Quantum Numbers
8. Shell, Sub Shell and Atomic Orbital
9. Electron Configuration
10. The Building-Up Principle