CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

 SUBTOPIC

Information and information system.

System development approach.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
Project planning.
Work breakdown structure.
Information System

• Information :
– Is data that has been transformed into output that is
valuable to users.
– Example : an order processing system that displays an
order form.
When a sales representative enters data ( customer
number, product code and quantity ordered), the system
creates a customer order with all the necessary
information.

• Information system :
– Combines information technology, people and data to
support business requirements.
– Information System have 5 components which are
hardware, software, data, processes and people.
 Information System Components

Hardware : Is the physical layer of the information system

Software :
–System software
–Application software
–Enterprise applications

Data
– Tables store data
– Linked tables work
together to supply
data
Processes
– Describe the tasks and business
functions that users, managers, and IT
staff members perform to achieve
specific results

people
- Stakeholders
- Users, or end users
 Types of information system
•
:
Four level pyramid model based on the different levels
of hierarchy in the organization
 Transaction Processing
Systems
• Transaction Processing System are
operational-level systems at the bottom of
the pyramid.
• They are usually operated directly by
shop floor workers or front line staff,
which provide the key data required to
support the management of operations.
• This data is usually obtained through the
automated or semi-automated tracking of
low-level activities and basic transactions.
TPS
Management Information
Systems
• Management Information Systems are
management-level systems that are used by
middle managers to help ensure the smooth
running of the organization in the short to
medium term.
• The highly structured information provided
by these systems allows managers to
evaluate an organization's performance by
comparing current with previous outputs.
 Decision Support
Systems
• A Decision Support System can be seen as a
knowledge based system, used by senior
managers, which facilitates the creation of
knowledge and allow its integration into the
organization.
• These systems are often used to analyze existing
structured information and allow managers to
project the potential effects of their decisions into
the future. Such systems are usually interactive
and are used to solve ill structured problems.
• They offer access to databases, analytical tools,
allow "what if" simulations, and may support the
exchange of information within the organization.
MIS & DSS
 Executive Information
Systems
• Executive Information Systems are strategic-level
information systems that are found at the top of the
Pyramid.
• They help executives and senior managers analyze the
environment in which the organization operates, to
identify long-term trends, and to plan appropriate
courses of action.
• The information in such systems is often weakly
structured and comes from both internal and external
sources.
• Executive Information System are designed to be
operated directly by executives without the need for
intermediaries and easily tailored to the preferences of
the individual using them.
 System Development Approach
• Structured Analysis
– Is a traditional systems development technique that is time tested and easy to
understand.
– Uses a series of phases to plan, analyze, design, implement and support an IS.

• Object Oriented Analysis

– is a popular technical approach for analyzing, designing an application, system,
– or business by applying the object-oriented paradigm and visual modeling
throughout the development life cycles to foster better stakeholder communication and
product quality.

• Agile / Adaptive Method

– refers to an iterative, incremental method of managing the design and build
activities of engineering, information technology and other business areas that
aim to provide new product or service development in a highly flexible and interactive
manner.
 System Development Life
Cycle (SDLC)
• Activities:
a. Planning :
b. Analyze
c. Design
d. Development
e. Testing
f. Implementation
g. Maintenance
 Planning
• This is the first phase in the systems development
process. It identifies whether or not there is the need
for a new system to achieve a business's strategic
objectives.
• This is a preliminary plan (or a feasibility study) for a
company’s business initiative to acquire the resources
to build on an infrastructure to modify or improve a
service.
• The company might be trying to meet or exceed
expectations for their employees, customers and
stakeholders too.
• The purpose of this step is to find out the scope of the
problem and determine solutions.
• Resources, costs, time, benefits and other items should
be considered at this stage.
 Analyze
• The second phase is where businesses will work on the
source of their problem or the need for a change.
• In the event of a problem, possible solutions are
submitted and analyzed to identify the best fit for the
ultimate goal(s) of the project.
• This is where teams consider the functional
requirements of the project or solution.
• It is also where system analysis takes place—or
analyzing the needs of the end users to ensure the new
system can meet their expectations.
• Systems analysis is vital in determining what a
business"s needs are, as well as how they can be met,
who will be responsible for individual pieces of the
project, and what sort of timeline should be expected.
 Design
• The third phase describes, in detail, the
necessary specifications, features and operations
that will satisfy the functional requirements of
the proposed system which will be in place.
• This is the step for end users to discuss and
determine their specific business information
needs for the proposed system. It"s during this
phase that they will consider the essential
components (hardware and/or software)
structure (networking capabilities), processing
and procedures for the system to accomplish its
objectives.
 Development
• The fourth phase is when the real work begins—in
particular, when a programmer, network engineer
and/or database developer are brought on to do the
major work on the project.
• This work includes using a flow chart to ensure that
the process of the system is properly organized.
• The development phase marks the end of the initial
section of the process.
• Additionally, this phase signifies the start of
production. The development stage is also
characterized by instillation and change.
• Focusing on training can be a huge benefit during
this phase.
 Testing
• The fifth phase involves systems integration and
system testing (of programs and procedures)—
normally carried out by a Quality Assurance
(QA) professional—to determine if the proposed
design meets the initial set of business goals.
• Testing may be repeated, specifically to check
for errors, bugs and interoperability.
• This testing will be performed until the end user
finds it acceptable.
• Another part of this phase is verification and
validation, both of which will help ensure the
program’s successful completion.
 Implementation
• The sixth phase is when the majority of the code for
the program is written. Additionally, this phase
involves the actual installation of the newly-
developed system. This step puts the project into
production by moving the data and components from
the old system and placing them in the new system
via a direct cutover. While this can be a risky (and
complicated) move, the cutover typically happens
during off-peak hours, thus minimizing the risk. Both
system analysts and end-users should now see the
realization of the project that has implemented
changes.
 Maintenance
• The seventh and final phase involves maintenance
and regular required updates.
• This step is when end users can fine-tune the
system, if they wish, to boost performance, add
new capabilities or meet additional user
requirements.
• In this phase, periodic maintenance for the system
will be carried out to make sure that the system
won’t become obsolete, this will include replacing
the old hardware and continuously evaluating
system’s performance, it also includes providing
latest updates for certain components to make sure
it meets the right standards and the latest
technologies to face current security threats.
 Types of life cycle models

a. Waterfall model
b. Spiral model
c. Iterative and incremental development
d. Agile model
e. Prototyping model
f. Rapid Application Development (RAD)
g. Joint Application Development (JAD)
 Waterfall model
• Represents the system in terms of data and the processes that objects that
act upon that data.
• System development is organized into phases with deliverables and
milestones to measure progress.
• Traditional method, which has been very popular over time. Relies heavily
on written documentation. Frequent phase iteration can provide flexibility
comparable with other methods. Well-suited to project management tools
and techniques.
• Changes can be costly, especially in later phases. Requirements are defined
early, and can change during development. Users might not be able to
describe their needs until they can see examples of features and functions.
Phases and deliverables of the
Spiral Model

• Was suggested in the 1990s by Barry Boehm, a noted software

engineering professor.
• He stated that each iteration, or phase, of the model must have a
specific goal that is accepted, rejected, or changed by the user, or client.
• Thus, each iteration produces feedback and enhancements, which
enable the team to reach the overall project goal.

Typical phases and tasks in a spiral model

 Iterative and incremental
development
• Develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions
at a time (incremental), allowing software developers to take advantage of
what was learned during development of earlier parts or versions of the
system.
Agile or Adaptive Methods
• is the newest software development method
• Agile methods attempt to develop a system incrementally, by building a
series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user
requirements.
• As the agile process continues, developers revise, extend, and merge
earlier versions into the final product.
• An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and each
incremental step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps.
Advantages :
•agile methods can allow developers to be much more flexible and responsive.
Disadvantages :
•Riskier than more traditional methods. For example, without a detailed set of
system requirements, certain features requested by some users might not be
consistent with the company’s main business.
•Weak documentation, blurred lines of accountability, and too little emphasis on
the larger business picture.
•Might increase project cost and development time due to long series of
iterations.
Prototyping Model
•A prototype is an early working version of an information system.

•Prototyping tests system concepts and provides an opportunity to examine

input, output, and user interfaces before final decisions
are made.

•A prototype can serve as an initial model that is used as a benchmark to

evaluate the finished system, or the prototype itself can develop into the
final version of the system.

•Either way, prototyping speeds up the development process significantly.

•A possible disadvantage of prototyping is that important decisions might

be made too early, before business or IT issues are understood thoroughly.

•A prototype based on careful fact-finding and modeling techniques,

however, can be an extremely valuable tool.
Rapid Application Development (RAD)

• is a team-based technique that speeds up information systems

development and produces a functioning information system.
• uses a group approach, but goes much further. The end product of
RAD is the new information system.
• is a complete methodology, with a four-phase life cycle that parallels
the traditional SDLC phases.
• Companies use RAD to reduce cost and development time, and
increase the probability of success.
• Relies heavily on prototyping and user involvement.
• The RAD process allows users to examine a working model as early
as possible, determine if it meets their need, and suggest necessary
changes.
• Based on user input, the prototype is modified and the interactive
process continues until the system is completely developed and
users are satisfied
Advantages :
•Systems can be developed more quickly with significant cost savings.

Disadvantages :
•RAD stresses the mechanics of the system itself and does not emphasize the
company’s strategic business needs.

•The risk is that a system might work well in the short term, but the corporate
and long-term objectives for the system might not be met.

•The accelerated time cycle might allow less time to develop quality,
consistency, and design standards.

•RAD can be an attractive alternative, however, if an organization understands

the possible risks.
Joint Application Development (JAD)
• is a popular fact-finding technique that brings users into the development
process as active participants.
• A JAD team usually meets over a period of days or weeks to analyze the
existing system, obtain user input and expectations, and document user
requirements for the new system.
• The JAD group usually has a project leader, who needs strong interpersonal
and organizational skills, and one or more members who document and
record the results and decisions.
• is more expensive and can be cumbersome if the group is too large relative to
the size of the project.
• When users participate in the systems development process, they are more
likely to feel a sense of ownership in the results, and support for the new
system.
• When properly used, JAD can result in a more accurate statement of system
requirements, a better understanding of common goals, and a stronger
commitment to the success of the new system.
Project Management Activities

• Project planning includes identifying all project tasks and estimating the
completion time and cost of each.

• Project scheduling involves the creation of a specific timetable, usually in the

form of charts that show tasks, task dependencies, and critical tasks that might
delay the project. Scheduling also involves selecting and staffing the project
team and assigning specific tasks to team members. Project scheduling uses
Gantt charts and PERT/CPM charts.

• Project monitoring requires guiding, supervising, and coordinating the project

team’s workload. The project manager must monitor the progress, evaluate the
results, and take corrective action when necessary to control the project and
stay on target.

• Project reporting includes regular progress reports to management, users, and

the project team itself. Effective reporting requires strong communication skills
and a sense of what others want and need to know about the project.
Work Breakdown Structures

• Work breakdown structure (WBS) involves breaking a project down into

a series of smaller tasks.

• A work breakdown structure must clearly identify each task and include
an estimated duration. A task, or activity, is any work that has a beginning
and an end and requires the use of company resources such as people,
time, or money.

• Examples of tasks include conducting interviews, designing a report,

selecting software, waiting for the delivery of equipment, or training
users.
• Tasks are basic units of work that the project manager plans, schedules,
and monitors — so they should be relatively small and manageable.
Task Pattern

• Tasks in a work breakdown structure must be arranged in a logical sequence

called a task pattern.

• Types of task pattern :

• dependent tasks : When tasks must be completed one after another.
Eg : relay race

Task 2 depends on Task 1, because Task 2 cannot start until Task 1 is completed.
In this example, the finish time of Task 1, Day 5, controls the start date of Task
2, which is Day 6.
 • multiple successor tasks
When several tasks can start at the same time, each is called a concurrent task.
Often, two or more concurrent tasks depend on a single prior task, which is called a
predecessor task. In this situation, each concurrent task is called a successor task.

• Successor Tasks 2 and 3 both can begin as soon as Task 1 is finished.

• Notice that the finish time for Task 1 determines the start time for both Tasks 2
and 3.
• The earliest that Task 1 can finish is day 30, so day 31 is the earliest that Tasks
2 and 3 can start.
 • multiple predecessor tasks
Suppose that a task requires two or more prior tasks to be completed before
it can start.

Task 1 ends on Day 15, while Task 2 ends on Day 5, so

Task 1 controls the start time for Task 3.
Can you explain the
task pattern for
each figure?
critical path analysis

• A critical path is a series of tasks which, if delayed, would affect the

completion date of the overall project. If any task on the critical path
falls behind schedule, the entire project will be delayed.

• For example, suppose that you invite Joan and Jim to your home for
dinner. Joan arrives on time, but Jim arrives 30 minutes late. Jim’s arrival
is part of the critical path, because you do not want to start without him,
so the meal will be served 30 minutes later than originally planned.

• Project managers always must be aware of the critical path, so they can
respond quickly to keep the project on track.
xample : A training project with five tasks.

Step 1 : review the task patterns.

In this example, Task 1 is followed by Task 2, which is a dependent task. Task 2
has two successor tasks: Task 3 and Task 4. Tasks 3 and 4 are predecessor tasks
for Task 5.

Step 2 : determine start and finish dates, which will determine the critical
path for the project
• Task 1 starts on Day 1 and has a duration of 10 days, so the finish date is Day 10.
• Task 2, which is dependent on Task 1, can start on Day 11 — the day after
Task 1 ends. With a duration of 30 days, Task 2 will end on Day 40.
• Tasks 3 and 4 are multiple successor tasks that can start after Task 2 is done.
Task 2 ends on Day 40, so Tasks 3 and 4 both can start on Day 41. Task 3 has a
duration of 5 days, and will end on Day 45. Task 4 has a duration of 25 days,
and will not end until Day 65.
• Task 5 depends on Tasks 3 and 4, which are multiple predecessors. Because
Task 5 depends on both tasks, it cannot start until the later of the two tasks is
complete. In this example, Task 3 ends earlier, but Task 4 will not be completed
until Day 65, so Task 5 cannot start until Day 66.
 Creating Work Breakdown Structures

1: List all the tasks

2 : Number the task and create a table with

columns for task number, description,
duration, and predecessor tasks.

3. Estimate Task Duration - can be hours,

days, or weeks , depending on the project.

Example of how to transform a task

statement into a list of specific
tasks for a work breakdown structure.
Estimate Task duration : A person a day
 WBS using Microsoft word

WBS using Microsoft Project

Leadership and Project manager

• Good leadership is essential in building up an information

system project.
• In a systems project, the project manager, or project leader,
usually is a senior systems analyst or an IT department
manager if the project is large.
• An analyst or a programmer/analyst might manage smaller
projects. In addition to the project manager, most large
projects have a project coordinator.
• A project coordinator handles administrative responsibilities
for the team and negotiates with users who might have
conflicting requirements or want changes that would require
additional time or expense.
• Project managers typically perform four activities, or functions:
planning, scheduling, monitoring, and reporting.