John Lock

 Lock begins as did Hobbes with the discussion of the

nature of man and of a state of nature.
 State of Nature:
 The state of nature has two characteristics. First ,it is a
state of perfect freedom, in which men do as they choose
within the limits imposed by the law of nature.
 Second , it is a state of equality for the inhabitants.
 Law of Nature:
 The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it,
which obliges everyone. Reason leads that all are equal
and independent. However, no true law can exist without
enforcement and in the state of nature the authority is in
every man's hands.
 No known laws
 No established legislature
 Each person is judge
 No executive authority to enforce judgment.
 Establishment of Society:
How, then, is government created? The answer is through a
trust arrangement. The government is a trustee which
functions for and responsible to the people who create the
trust . The government has no rights equal to those held by
the people, but only obligations to those for whom it acts as
an agent. There must be legislature and it is the supreme
power in every commonwealth.( Representative assembly).
 Although lock refers to the legislative assembly as the
supreme power , but he doesn't intended it to be
considered as having absolute authority. It can't perform
in arbitrary manner Must be directive towards the good
of society The legislative power is supreme only in
relationship to other agencies of government.
 Executive Authority
 Executive must be set up . There must be known authorized judge.
Legislature and executive must not be combined in the same
hands.
 The Right of Revolution
 The Right of Revolution is in trust agreement. If Government
violates the trust by ignoring its purpose or by using the power
granted to it for a selfish purpose, the people have a right to
remove the government.
 Sovereignty:
 The Right of the members of society to choose and remove the
agents assumes that sovereignty rests with the people. ( Popular
sovereignty).
 J.J Rousseau Social Theory:
 Born in Geneva in 1712 and lived there till 1728.His mother died
when Rousseau was born . His father Issac Rousseau was a perfect
dance master.
 The Pattern and Purpose of Rousseau's Theory:
 Like the man, his philosophy is extraordinarily complex. His
writings are often abstract and not always Clear - He criticised the
society in which he lived. He praised the merits of natural man and
the primitive society which he imagined might have existed before
men were Corrupted by civilization. Rousseau undertook the task
of remodeling man's nature and provide an entirely different kind
of society.
The First and second discourse:
Rousseau himself regarded the first discourse as the poorest
of his writings. It is highly charged with emotions. It is an
attack upon the central principles of enlightenment .Art and
science , he says, have weakened society . They have
created a materialistic outlook which undermined virtue
and morals .
 The second discourse.
 In his Second discourse Rousseau attempts to provide an
explanation of the origin of Inequality of men. It is
equally an essay on the origin of civil society. The First
man was ruled by the laws of God. There are two kinds
of inequality among men . The first is natural. It is the
kind that only exists in the state of nature (age, health ,
bodily, strength and the qualities of mind or a soul). The
other is moral and political inequality. It is established by
men in society. It comprises such privileges as that of
being more rich , more honoured and more powerful.
State of nature :
it was based on peace . There were , Rousseau says, two
motivations in natural man. These are self love and
compassion for one's fellow man. However , perfection
rather than peace is the main desire of human kind . This
can't be achieved in the state of nature. With the appearance
of private property ( criticism on John lock ) equality
disappeared. It has corrupted the natural man.
What can be done to erase this misfortune?
Can one return to a state of nature ? This would be no
advantage, for many would lost his opportunity for moral
perfection. The only solution is to create a new society
which will retain the advantages but eliminate the
disadvantage.
The social contract:
Community: Rousseau doesn't view community as a mere
collection of singular persons. Each of whom is public
person . Everyone is a moral being and it is governed not by
a particular will but general will . The individual is capable
of morality only as a member of this body. There is no good
life outside the state.
What kind of political community is good or morally
acceptable?
The Rousseau contract requires that each member surrender
to the community all of his rights. The surrender must be
total and unconditional, for in the legitimate political
community the people as a body are sovereign. Why
General Will? Under this concept no one loses anything and
everyone gains security guaranteed by the power of the
community. The government is merely an instrument of the
people and does not possess independent power .
To avoid particularism, which may destroy the community,
it is necessary for the body to operate on the basis of
general will. It is the source of law as it emanates from all
and directed to all. Paradox of Rousseau's philosophy. He
doesn't allow minority. He believes in totalitarian
democracy. According to him, the minority are wrong and
they inflicted pain on themselves by not supporting the
majority. Many people say that he gives rise to Hitler and
Mussolini.
Utilitarianism:
Utilitarians were concerned with happiness rather than an
individual's moral development. They rejected the idea that
virtue is an end in itself. The state exists to secure the
happiness of man . Men obey a ruler not because of a legal
or moral obligation but only because it is in their interests
to do so.
Jeremy Bentham:
Born in London on Feb 15, 1748. He wrote Latin and was reading
Voltaire when he was six. He criticised the legal system of England
and he wanted to reform it with new standardism. The standard is
utility.
Criticism on social contract theory: The theory of social contract is
fiction and fictions are useless. Men obey governments when it is in
their interest to do so . Utility, not contract, is the basis of political
obligations. The motives of pain and pleasure lead men to act as they
do.
Main work : Fragment on government and the principle of morals
and legislation.
Principle of utility:
The principle of utility is the heart of Bentham's theory.
Bentham says that every human action is motivated by the
desire to obtain as much pleasure and avoid as much pain as
possible. It should be understood that Bentham's theory
here is individualistic rather than communitarian. He
mentioned that there is no community as such, but only
individuals. The interest of the community then is, what?
Some of the interests of the several members .
Some simple pleasures: sense, wealth , skills , good name ,
power, piety imagination, power of memory , association
and relief.
Types of pain : awkwardness, ill , enmity and bad qualities
and habits.
Bentham's political Theory
Bentham was not suggesting severe limitations on the freedom of the
individual. The very principle of utility implies limits upon the power
of government Representative democracy: The best solution in the
view of the representative government. If people govern themselves,
if the people are both governors and governed , there will be no
conflict of interest.
J. S. Mill:
Born in 1806, began reading the Greek classics at the age of
three and also studied Latin, algebra , philosophy, chemistry
and economics. His major interest was history. By the time
he was sixteen, he had completed his formal education.
Mill and New liberalism:
His writings reflect the problems that grew out of the rapidly
developing industrialism and democracy of England. He was both
individualistic and collectivist. His view is that society, apart from the
government, is destructive to individual rights.
Mill' Representative Government:
Mill prefers democracy because he thought men would be better
under that system, even if they were not happier . Mill begins by
accepting the premise of the greatest happiness and then proceeds to
argue that it must be measured by both quantitative and qualitative
methods.
Mill on liberty:
Mill representative government is his solution to the
problems that concern the relationship of the individual and
government. Mill fear is that the huge and monolithic
society is a greater threat to individuality than the
government.
Note : Freedom of conscience, of thought, of speech and
opinion, of personal life and of association --- the society
should never interfere in it .
Karl Marx: Marxism/ Communism/Materialism
Introduction: Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 in
Prussia. He was the son of a lawyer. Both of his parents
were Jewish. His entire family was converted into
Christianity. Karl Marx was a journalist and philosopher of
the Revolution.
Dialectical Materialism:
Marx claimed that he was scientific rather than a utopian.
Marx, like Hegal develop a philosophy of history .
However he rejected the idealism of Hegal and laid the
bases for a materialistic interpretation of the dialectic. Marx
took from Hegal the view of dialects, the view that progress
results from the conflict of opposing forces . The clash ,
Marx said , is one of material forces and ideas are only
products of the material environment in which men live.
Forces of production:
In every society, Marx says, the fundamental determinant of
all other developments is the forces of production. The
forces of production consist of raw materials or natural
resources and the technique( Technology) by which those
materials are converted into consumable goods.
Relations of Production:
The forces of production give rise to particular relations of
production. The relationship is always determined by the property
factor; there are those who own and those who do not own . This
Relationship is one of command and obedience. ( Haves and Haves
not) An alteration of production forces demands a change in the
production relations . The failure of production relations to
accommodate such change results in tension that arises between the
classes involved in the productive forces.
Super structure of society:
On this economic foundation is erected a super structure, which
consists of non material aspects of society. Laws, moral codes,
religion, art, governmental forms, theories and various aspects of the
culture of society. Superstructure furnishes the commanding class of
society with a justification and rationalisation of its position. A
commanding class always universalise its own position.
Superstructure is the weapon of the commanding class to maintain its
own superior status.
The class struggle:
Class struggle is the method by which the dialectic progresses. Class
structure is dependent upon the production forces of society and the
culture of society is utilized by a dominant class to hold another class
in subjection. What happens, then that disturb the equilibrium? The
answer is, changing technology is the method of production. The
owner seeking to maximise their advantages, alter and impose their
techniques of production. They don't know that in doing so they
destroy the foundation upon which their system rests. The forces of
production came in conflict with relations of production. This is the
period of social revolution. In the midst of it, the proletariate will take
control of forces production.
Theory of surplus value:
Ricardo, and all other had suggested that the workers produce more
value than they recieve in the form of wages and this difference
constitutes the profit of owner in the society.
Revolution and proletarian dictatorship.
The Revolution of the proletariate is the first that involves in which a
majority gains control and the minority becomes the oppressed class.
Marx would never have opposed violence if he thought it necessary
to accomplish revolutionary objectives. The government will be a
dictatorship of the proletariate. It is , Marx says, far more democratic
than other governments have been .
The communist society:
Classless society, a great level of equality, men regard as
ends in themselves. It is a society without a state, for the
state is the organised oppression of class violence and there
are no more classes." From each according to his ability to
each according to his needs "