19th Century Balance of Power:

Great Power Alliances and the

Road to World War I
INR 216 POLITICAL HISTORY
International System
• The two great wars that occurred in the 20th century led to a different approach to the
international relations than the one in which each state and its behavior is observed.
• This led to the emergence of systemic approaches to the international relations.
• A system is a set of elements in interaction
• The international system is an environment in which states interact with each other.
• These relations are structured according to certain rules and patterns
• the international system is anarchic, the primary actors are the states
• No authority exists above the state, which is sovereign.
• Each state look out for its own interests
• Polarity: refers to the number of blocs of states that exert power in the international system.
• There are three types of polarity:
• Hegemony
• Bipolarity
• Multipolarity
The historical development of the
International System
• In the 17th century Balance of Power replaced the hegemonic system.
• the nation-state emerged as the dominant political unit of the
international system
• A series of powerful states dominated Europe, with the great powers
rising and falling. Weaker states often banded together to prevent the
dominant power from becoming too strong, a practice known as
preserving the balance of power.
Balance of Power in the 17th and
the 18th Centuries
• In the 17th century to maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances
against France with states such as Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands
• In the 18th century, a number of major European powers—such as Austria, Prussia,
Great Britain, and France changed alliances multiple times to prevent the hegemony
of one nation or alliance.
• A number of wars occurred from the desire to maintain the balance of power,
including the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, the
Seven Years' War, the War of the Bavarian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars.
• Following Britain's success in the Seven Years' War, many of the other powers began
to see England as a greater threat than France. Several states entered the American
War of Independence in the hope of overturning Britain's growing strength by
securing the independence of the Thirteen colonies of British America.
19th Century Concert of Europe
• From 1815-1870, in the aftermath of Napoleon's near domination of Europe, the European
power developed a system of military and political balance.
• to achieve lasting peace, the Concert of Europe tried to maintain the balance of power.
• United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia, and France
• Reacted to several revolutionary attempts including 1830, 1848 revolutions.
• By the 1850’s France and Britain were concerned with the growing power of Russia and
Prussia.
• They first attempted to balance the rising power of Russia with the Crimean War of 1854–
55.
• Creation of a unified Germany and Italy.
• The important players of the Concert of Europe, France and Austria being defeated by these
two new Powers meant the end of the concert of Europe
• A new power Germany attempts to dominate the system
Crimean War
• The Crimean War took place between October 1853 and March 1856,
and was fought between a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman
Empire and Sardinia against the Russian Empire.
• In 1853, Russia demanded that the Ottoman Empire recognize Russia's
right to protect Eastern Orthodox believers in the Ottoman Empire.
• When refused, Russia sent troops into Ottoman territory.
• Fearing increased Russian power and an upset to the balance of power
on the Continent, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia on
March 28, 1854.
• Russia is defeated.
Crimean War and the 19th century
BoP
• In terms of the 19th century international relations, the Crimean War
marked the end of the Russian military dominance on the Continent.
• Russian army was the largest force in the continent.
• It was Russia who guaranteed to maintain order and balance after the
defeat of the Napoleon
• Russia was defeated by smaller British and French forces.
• Its navy proved useless and backward by the middle of the nineteenth
century. Now, that power was effectively eliminated.
• The Crimean War shows that the end of the balance of power is close.
Italian and German Unification and
the end of the Balance
• Italian Unification was to some extent acceptable for the balance of
power in Europe. A united Italy could balance France and Prussia.
• But European balance of power is entirely destroyed with the
unification of Germany. Germany became the dominant power in
European.
• Following the unification of Germany Bismarck dominated European
diplomacy.
• For the next 20 years he created aliances to assure Germany’s power
and diplomatically isolated France.
Changing Foreign Policies of
European Powers After the
Unification of Germany
• France and Austria lost power and prestige in Europe after German
Unification. These two states had to change their focus on foreign policy
• The French foreign policy was directed toward an overseas imperialism.
• Austria focused on the Balkans where it clash with Russia. Conflict
between Austria and Russia over the Balkans will eventually lead to
World War I.
• Russia will start using Panislavist foreign policy in the Balkans both
against the Slavs both in Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empires.
19th century diplomacy
• The foundation of nineteenth-century diplomacy lay in the
assumption by each continental power that alliances with other great
powers would protect it by forcing any nation considering war to face
at least two hostile powers.
• Bismarck captured the urgency the European great powers felt about
the necessity of alliances, and the delicate nature of the balance of
power itself: “All [international] politics reduces itself to this formula:
Try to be a trois (three) as long as the world is governed by the
unstable equilibrium of five great powers”—Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Russia, Britain, and France.
German Foreign Policy from 1871 to
1914:
Bismarckian and Wilhemine Eras
• German Foreign Policy in the 4 decades prior to World War I is important.
• German Foreign Policy of the era may be divided into two periods.
• One was the Bismarckian period when the German chancellor Otto Von Bismarck was the
dominant factor in shaping the foreign policy, which started from the unification of Germany
in 1871 to Bismarck’s fall in 1890.
• In the Bismarckian era Germany began as a satiated power and was careful in devising alliance
systems that would keep the balance of power in Europe stable and in favour of Germany.
• The other was the Wilhelmine Era which continued for twenty-five years from 1890 to 1914,
when Kaiser Wilhelm II gave shape and direction to the making of German foreign policy.
• In the Wilhemine era from 1890 to 1914 the emphasis was more on an expansionist policy in
Germany. Kaiser William II supported the policy of ‘welt politik’. Germany started aspiring
towards a colonial empire as well as the construction of a strong navy that would enable it to
achieve its objectives.
 The Bismarckian system, 1871–90
• European policy from 1871 to 1890 was dominated by the German chancellor Otto
von Bismarck.
• Once Germany was unified in 1871 his goal was to consolidate German state and
increase the power and prestige of Germany in Europe.
• Catholic Southern Germans (reluctantly joined the Protestant North)
• Postpone a French-German Rivalry ( should not turn into a war in the short run)
• Increase armaments (his era was called the armed peace)
• Bismarck introduced alliance systems to keep the balance in Europe stable and in
favor of Germany.
• Bismarck developed an aggressive diplomacy with two goals
• To keep France isolated.
• To undermine UK’s leadership in the European Concert.
• Show Germany as a satiated power in the imperial race.
• Germany is no threat to Great Britain and would not pose a threat to its sea connection to India
• Germany is no threat to Russia in the Balkans
Bismarck and his two fold diplomacy
• The first part of the plan was easy to accomplish due to UK’s policy of avoiding getting
involved in European politics.
• Splendid Isolation: British reluctance to enter into permanent European alliances or
commitments with the other great powers.
• This policy of GB will change after Bismarck when Germany's naval aspirations developed under
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz
• Great Britain remain independent of any alliance until the signing of an Entente with France in
1904.
• Britain ultimately came to fear the expanding German navy more than French colonial
competition or Russia.
• For the second part of the plan (isolate France) Bismarck had to develop a complicated
system of alliances so that France never finds an ally to attack Germany.
• The alliances that were created by Bismarck determined the system of alliances
before the outbreak of war.
No 1 Foreign Policy: Isolate France.
Why?
• The main problem of the 1871-1914 era was the French-German hostility
• The mercy shown to Austria after Sadowa war was not shown to France after
Sedan.
• The way German unification took place would sooner or later cause the
come back of France.
• Annexation of Alsace Lorraine guaranteed a revanchist agenda of France.
France would not rest until Alsace Lorraine is recovered through a war.
• Bismarck was keen to ensure that France was unable to ally with any other
European power to proceed against Germany to avenge its defeat.
Europe and Balance of Power
• A broad international system of alliances replaced the old balance of power created by
Metternich.
• England-
• Splendid isolation, against any alliance with the continental Powers
• Happy with French defeat at Sedan as France is temporarily eliminated from the colonial rivalry.
• Austria-Hungary
• Against Russia who plays the panislavist card against him.
• An alliance with France is not likely, and can not be a remedy to its problem of nationalist uprisings
• Close to Germany. German kinship
• Russia
• The most likely ally of France against Germany. Relations between Germany and Russia
deteriorated due to the Treaty of Berlin.
• Should be kept on the side of Germany at any cost.
 First phase of Bismarcks alliance System:
The League of the 3 emperors (1873)
• In the multi-polar European system there were five players. Germany, Austria, Russia, France, Great
Britain. Because of GB’s splendid isolationism, for Bismarck the solution to French revanchism was to
have Russia and Austria on Germany’s side.
• In the first phase of the Bismarckian era the general drift was towards establishing diplomatic alliances
with Russia and Austria-Hungary.
• In 1873 Bismarck organised a meeting with the 3 emperors (Wilhelm I of Germany, Franz Joseph I of
Austria-Hungary and Alexander II of Russia. The objective of the meeting was to establish an alliance with
them that would ensure safety in the case of the outbreak of war with France.
• The League of the 3 Emperors was a conservative monarchical solidarity against the left wing republican
democratic forces. Bismarck was able to create an alliance by persuading the three emperors that France
as a republic was a threat for their monarchical regimes.
• Bismarck aimed at neutralizing the rivalry between Russia and Austria by an agreement over their
respective spheres of influence in the Balkans
• 3 Emperors promised to protect the statusquo in Europe, conflicts in the Balkans will be mutually solved,
revolutionary attempts will be handled unilaterally, the signatories will not ally with any other power. The
three rulers pledged to consult each other in order to maintain the peace “against all disturbances from
whatever side they might come.”
Balkan Crisis and the end of the League of 3
Emperors
• Balkans were the "Achilles heel" of the Three Emperors League.
• A revolt broke out in Herzegovina in 1875 and, despite the efforts of the League
members, it spread and created international complications until eventually it
disrupted the league of the 3 emperors and brought Europe to the brink of war.
• The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans,
sought and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary.
• In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, the two agreed that Russia would annex
Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would observe a benevolent neutrality toward
Russia in the pending war with the Ottoman Empire.
• As compensation for this support, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's
annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Balkan Crisis and the end of the League of 3
Emperors
• Russia intervened the Balkans in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 with the consent
of Austria-Hungary
• When Russia came close to Istanbul, England intervened and gave a unilateral
guarantee of territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
• Russia signed the treaty of San Stefano creating a large Russian satellite Bulgarian
state
• Bismarck is alarmed as a result of the treaty. He does not want the Austrian drifting
away from the three emperors league. An unpleased Austria can form a coalition
against Russia with England and France. This would also allow France to end its
diplomatic isolation
• Bismarck decided to play the role of the honest broker. He offered an international
conference to discuss the outcome of the Balkan crisis.
Berlin Congress 1878
• Bismarck was confronted with the choice of supporting Russia over maintenance of the
Bulgarian state or supporting Austria-Hungary over the dismantlement of it. Bismarck decided to
go with Austria-Hungary
• Russia had no option but to annull San Stefano and accept treaty of Berlin.
• Bulgaria is cut down to a small state under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
• Britain and AustriaHungary feared that Bulgaria might serve Russian interests, the Congress of
Berlin recognized the creation of the independent states of Serbia and Romania (consisting of
Walachia and Moldavia) as buffers against further Russian ambitions in the Balkans. Montenegro
also gained independence
• Austria-Hungary gets control of Bosnia- Herzegovina in order to prevent the extension of Russian
influence and the union of Serbia and Montenegro. Sancak is given back to the Ottomans
• This antagonizing Russia, because both territories had populations of Serbs, who looked to
Russia for leadership.
Dual Alliance(1879)
• Germany is forced to choose between keeping its alliance with Austria-Hungary or Russia. Germany
opts for Austria-Hungary because in the case of a war between Russia and Austria Hungary, Austrians
would be defeated which would make Russia too strong
• The threat of Russian-oriented Pan-Slavism made Austria-Hungary even more dependent on Germany.
In 1879 Germany renews its treaty with Austria- Hungary. Germany and Austria signs a military
agreement to provide aid in the case of war.
• If one of the two signatories was attacked by Russia, the other signatory would be obliged to provide
full military support.
• If one of the signatories is attacked by any country other than Russia, then the other signatory would
remain neutral. Austria did not want to go to war against France.
• If Russia goes to the help of France in the case of a war between the signatories and France then the
other signatory will come to help.
• Supported by the British. Lord Salisbury supported a Germany backed Austria limiting the expansionist
aims of Russia in the Balkans. Bismarck had intended Germany’s alliance with Austria-Hungary to force
Russia to seek better relations with Germany.
• Having secured Austria-Hungary’s alliance, Bismarck attempted to secure once more the Three
emperors league
The Reinforcement of the League of
the 3 Emperors (1881)
• Russia is important for Germany. An alliance of Russia and France would be a great disadvantage to
Germany.
• Balkan crisis calm down. To reinforce the system Bismarck signs a new treaty with Russia in 1881.
The League of the 3 Emperors(Germany-Russia-Austria) is reinforced.
• This time if any of the signatories go to war against a fourth power the other two will remain neutral.
• For Russia, this alliance was a way to limit Austro-Hungarian expansion in the Balkans toward the
straits of İstanbul. The signatories would not attack the European territories of the Ottoman Empire
without prior agreement. Germany also wanted that Austria and Russia do not go to a war for the
Ottoman Europe
• Tensions between Russia and Austria rise again as a result of the Serbo-Bulgarian war of 1885.Russia
leaves the alliance in 1887.
• Russia wants to keep its alliance with Germany. Signs the secret reinsurance treaty in 1887.
• Each country would remain neutral in war involving the others unless Germany attack France or Russia attack
Austria.
• Germany accepts Russian demands in the Balkans (Bulgaria)
Italy joins Germany and Austria-
Hungary:
Triple Alliance (1882)
• In 1882 Germany makes a secret treaty with Italy. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-
Hungary were to assist Italy if it is attacked by France. Remember: Germany and Austria-Hungary
had been closely allied since 1879
• Italy and France was in conflict about the colonies in North Africa.(1881 occupation of Tunusia by
France led to Italy’s inclusion in the triple alliance. ) Italy sought support against France shortly
after it lost certain North African territories to the French.
• Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary
and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral.
• If Russia attacks any of the signitories the other two would come to help
• Despite the treaty Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in
the Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas.
• Triple Alliance was renewed every five year. On 1 November 1902, five months after the Triple
Alliance was renewed, Italy reached an understanding with France that each would remain
neutral in the event of an attack on the other.
End of the Bismarck Era
• In 1888 Bismarck achieved the dual alliances (Germany-Austria, Germany-Russia) he wanted on
the European continent.
• Same year Wilhelm II. became the new Kaiser of Germany.
• His views conflicted with the old and conservative Bismarck.
• In 1890 Wilhelm II. dismissed Bismarck. Bismarckian era in German foreign policy came to an
end.
• Wilhelm II. sought an aggressive foreign policy. According to Wilhelm II. Germany should
conduct Weltpolitik. A place in the sun!
• Wilhelm II. did not understand the value of an alliance with Russia. He did not renew the
reinsurance treaty in 1890.
• He thought that Russia and Austria could not become allies.
• He also thought the liberal France and the autocratic Russia could not become allies. He was
wrong!
Franco-Russian Alliance(1894)
• The Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany ends in 1890. No renewal, Germany is now a
hostile state for Russia.
• The strengthening of the German Empire, the creation of the Triple Alliance of 1882, and increasing
tensions between France-Germany and Russia-Germany led to a common foreign policy and mutual
strategic military interests between France and Russia.
• France began approaching to Russia starting from late 1880’s. Russian Tzar visited, France, French
companies invested in Russia. At the end of the 1880s and the beginning of the 1890s, Russia received a
number of large loans from France.
• When Germany supported Austria instead of Russia, the latter removed itself from all treaty
obligations with Germany and allied itself with France in 1892. In 1892, the two signed a military treaty.
• Each pledged a military response if the other were attacked by Germany or by one or more of its allies. In the
event of war, France wanted support against Germany; and Russia, against Austria-Hungary. The two
powers slowly came closer together, upsetting the system of alliances that had been established by
Bismarck
• A secret formal alliance followed this treaty in 1894.
 Rising German Power leads to the alliance of
Great Britain and France: Entente Cordiale
• During the 1890s, the possibility of Britain joining the Alliance of France and Russia seemed
remote.
• Germany and Britain also had some competing colonial interests. However, Kaiser Wilhelm II.
attempted to make an alliance with England and signed.
• Signed Anglo-German treaty to settle colonial disputes between Germany and Great Britain.
• In 1892 Gladstone became the prime minister of GB who was against an alliance with Germany. Alliance failed
• Naval Race: Admiral Tirpitz the architect of the German Navy
• Kaiser Wilhelm supported the Afrikaner in the Boer Wars
• Bismarck wouldnt have done such a thing
• France and Great Britain reorient their foreign policies by the beginning of the 20. century.
• The two forget about tensions over the colonial possessions in Africa
• Germany poses greater threat to their security
• Great Britain realized that splendid isolationism is not the best for its interests in Europe.
• In Great britain, prime minister Lord Salisbury who was an ardent supporter of splendid isolationism was
replaced (1902) by Lord Balfour who was pro-French.
• Entente Cordiale 1904 (Samimi antlaşma)
Entente Cordiale 1904 (Samimi
antlaşma)
• The Entente Cordiale reached between Britain and France in 1904 had
the immediate goal of eliminating points of tension between the two
powers:
• Britain recognized French interests in Morocco in exchange for the French
recognition of British control over Egypt;
• both sides accepted the existence of neutral Siam in Indochina standing
between French Indochina and British-controlled Burma; and they settled a
centuries-old dispute over fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland.
Naval Race between Germany and
GB
• German military spending had quadrupled between 1874 and 1890. From 1898 onwards,
Germany began to create a battle fleet.
• Needs a strong navy to be able to conduct Weltpolitik.
• A shipbuilding arms race with Britain soon began. As a result GB distanced itself
from Germany.
• From 1906, this naval race became focused on the construction of a new class
of battleship developed in Britain – the dreadnought.
• Designed around the firepower of heavy guns and powered by steam turbines,
these huge vessels made all earlier warships obsolete. In both countries, the
public – encouraged by the press, popular authors and naval pressure groups –
demanded more battleships.
• In fact, Germany could not hope to match the Royal Navy in the short term and,
in 1910, began to redirect much of its defence spending to the Army. However,
the damage to Germany’s relationship with Britain proved irreversible.
Developments in the Army
• Schlieffen Plan: German war tactic developed by General Schlieffen
• A military plan to be adapted in the case of a two front war against
France and Germany.
20. Century start with crisis
• As these new alliances are formed the beginning of the 20. century started with
crisis.
• First Moroccon Crisis(1905): The French turned the North African nation Morocco
into a protectorate.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II. traveled to Morocco and declared German support for Moroccon
independence.
• He hoped that the British would give minimal support to France as these two have colonial
disputes.
• He also hopes that Russia would not help France as the country is in war with Japan.
• At the end Russia, France and Britain came together against Germany and Germany
did not achive its goals in Morocco.
• It was an excuse for Great Britain to balance the rising German power. It abondoned
splendid isolationism policy.
Signing of the Anglo-Russian Treaty
and the forming of the Triple Entente
• Bismarcks great nightmare was an alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia.
• Rising German power led to the abondonment of Splendid isolationism in Europe and create an
alliance against Germany.
• Russia after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese (1905) war concentrated on the Balkans again.
According to the Russians, Russian interests were in the Balkans, where they competed with those of
Austria-Hungary, not in Asia, where British interests lay. Russia also recovered from the disastrous
Russo-Japanese War by British loans
• Britain viewed Russian economic influence in Iran and Afghanistan as threatening. The two came to
an agreement over Iran.
• North to Russia, South to England, central Iran as a buffer zone. Russia recognize the British
dominance in Afghanistan. Both powers agreed to stay out of Tibet.
• GB, and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian treaty in 1907.
• The once isolated France is now in a very strong position in Europe.
• Remember Italy also set closer ties with France since 1902
First Bosnian Crisis(1908)
• The Balkans increasingly became the key to maintaining peace in Europe
• Germany was not able to restrain Austria in the Balkans after 1907. Austria remained as
Germany’s only reliable ally.
• First Bosnian Crisis (1908)
• Russia secretly negotiated with Austria-Hungary for the absorption of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
Austria-Hungary in returm for support for the opening of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits to
the Russian fleet
• Bosnia was occupied by the Austrians in 1878. Austria annexed Bosnia in 1908 Treaty between Austria
and Russia was preventing Austrian annexation of Bosnia
• Serbian army mobilized with Russian support but Russia could not find support from France and
England to attack Austria.
• Germany backed Austria. No war erupted but Russia felt humiliated
• Damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on one hand and Serbia, Italy and the Russian
Empire
• 2. Moroccon Crisis-Agadir Crisis:a German attempt to challenge
French rights in Morocco by sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir in
July 1911. Led to closer relations between France and Britain
• Italian-Ottoman War (1911): Italy invaded Tripoli in 1911, the success
of Italy in Libya against the Ottomans encouraged the small Powers of
the Balkans to declare war against the Ottoman empire.
First Balkan War (1912-1913)
• The Balkan states formed the Balkan league(Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia and
Greece) against the Ottoman Empire.
• The Balkan league won the war against the Ottoman Empire and the treaty of
London was signed.
• Ottoman Empire lost all of its lands in Europe.
• The Treaty of London of May 1913 divided up most of the remaining Ottoman
holdings in southeastern Europe among the Balkan states.
• Albanian state is created with the London treaty. Austria supported the
creation of an Albanian state in an attempt to stop the expansion of Serbia.
• Russia was supporting Serbias accession to sea. This was stopped by the
creation of Albania. Once again Russia is humiliated!
Second Balan War (1913)
• Serbia and Bulgaria had a conflict on Macedonia over a territory won by
Bulgaria after the First Balkan War.
• Bulgarians thought they had the best fighting in the war so they are
entitled to the best territory.
• The result of this dispute was the Second Balkan War
• Montenegro, Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Emprie against
Bulgaria.
• Bulgaria lost much of its territorial gains.
• These two Balkan wars led to the polarization of Russia and Germany
more than ever.
28 June 1914
• A slavic nationalist called Gavrilo Princip killed archiduke Franz
Ferdinand -heir to the Austrian throne- during his Sarajevo trip.
• Serbian government claimed that it wasnt involved in the
assasination.
• Austrians blame the Serbian government.
• Austria invades Serbia
• Russian mobilization begins on July 30
• Germany demands Russia to stop mobilization. Bind to help Austria
because of the Dual alliance.
And the War starts…
• Russia does not stop mobilization
• Germany declares war on Russia on 1. August
• Germany asks the French government how it would respond to a war
between Germany and Russia?
• Answer: We will react in our best interests!
• Germany declares war on France on 3. August