SCHOLARLY

WRITING
BY BALOZI MICHAEL GEORGE NDIMBO
WHAT IS SCHOLARLY WRITING?

• Scholarly writing is also known as academic writing. It is the genre of writing used
in all academic fields.
• Scholarly writing is not better than journalism, fiction, or poetry; it is just a different
category.
• Because most of us are not used to scholarly writing, it can feel unfamiliar and
intimidating, but it is a skill that can be learned by immersing yourself in scholarly
literature
WHAT IS SCHOLARLY/ACADEMIC WRITING?

• Academic writing is a formal style of writing that researchers and educators use in
scholarly publications.
• It focuses on evidence-based arguments and logical reasoning to guide a reader's
understanding of a subject.
• Writers can use this format to identify and analyse a concept and propose a theory or
rational conclusion.
• Professionals may use scholarly writing differently depending on their field. For example,
scientists use this type of writing to explain their research and support their findings,
while literary critics use scholarly writing to make a convincing argument through fact-
based research.
PURPOSE OF ACADEMIC WRITING

1. Helps scholars present ideas, analyse research

and construct an effective argument.
2. Writers can use this format to identify and
analyse a concept and propose a theory or
rational conclusion.
CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURE OF
ACADEMIC WRITING
1.Formal tone & style: Shows the writer's knowledge and expertise in the
subject area. Writers typically use the third-person point of view
throughout scholarly writing to show objectivity.
2.Objective Argument: Writers support their statements and key points
using facts and evidence-based research. They use data and analysis to
present an argument objectively, without stating their own beliefs or
assumptions.
3.Use of Resources: Writers use scholarly writing to show their knowledge
of the subject. They support their conclusions with evidence and cite those
resources, often including a bibliography with their work.
4.Logical Structure: Scholarly writing's clear and logical structure can help
readers follow the text and make connections between related concepts. It
has an introduction and a conclusion and a well-defined thesis statement.
CATEGORIES OF SCHOLARLY / ACADEMIC WRITING –
CONT.

1. Annotated bibliographies: This a comprehensive list of sources on

a topic that includes brief descriptions or evaluations of each source. It
summarizes these sources, usually in a paragraph format, so that a reader
can understand the general context of each one.
2. Theses: Sometimes known as a dissertation (with words between 6,000 -
20,000), is a document that summarizes the author's research on a specific
topic. It usually builds on existing research to contribute new knowledge or
theories on the topic.
3. Literary Analyses: A literary analysis evaluates a literary work, such as a
book or collection of poetry. Authors of a literary analysis persuasively
communicate their interpretation of an idea or concept in the literature.
TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

• The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical.
• Each of these types of writing has specific language features and purposes.
• In many academic texts you will need to use more than one type.
• For example, in an empirical thesis:
• You will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a gap or opportunity in the
existing research
• The methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the methods used to collect and analyze
information
• The results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report on the data you collected
• The discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research questions,
and also persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings.
DESCRIPTIVE ACADEMIC WRITING

• The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its purpose is to

provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an
article or a report of the results of an experiment.
• The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include:
'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarise' and 'define'.
ANALYTICAL ACADEMIC WRITING

• It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic writing is also
analytical.
• Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also requires you to re-organise the facts
and information you describe into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships.
• Sometimes, these categories or relationships are already part of the discipline, while in
other cases you will create them specifically for your text. If you’re comparing two theories,
you might break your comparison into several parts, for example: how each theory deals
with social context, how each theory deals with language learning, and how each theory
can be used in practice.
• Examples of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyse', 'compare',
'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'.
ANALYTICAL ACADEMIC WRITING

How to make your writing more analytical:

• Spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try different
ways of grouping them, according to patterns, parts, similarities and differences.
You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams or tables.
• Create a name for the relationships and categories you find. For example,
advantages and disadvantages.
• Build each section and paragraph around one of the analytical categories.
• Make the structure of your paper clear to your reader, by using topic sentences
and a clear introduction.
PERSUASIVE ACADEMIC WRITING

• In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than
analytical writing, to persuasive writing.
• Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (that is, information
plus re-organising the information), with the addition of your own point of view.
Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive element in at least the
discussion and conclusion of a research article.
• Points of view in academic writing can include an argument, recommendation,
interpretation of findings or evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive
writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by some evidence,
for example a reference to research findings or published sources.
• Examples of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue',
'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.
PERSUASIVE ACADEMIC WRITING CONT…

• How to reach your own point of view on the facts or ideas:

• Read some other researchers' points of view on the topic.
• Who do you feel is the most convincing?
• Look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence strongest?
• List several different interpretations. What are the real-life implications of each
one? Which ones are likely to be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have
some problems?
• Discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their point of
view?
PERSUASIVE ACADEMIC WRITING CONT…

• How to develop your argument:

• List the different reasons for your point of view
• Think about the different types and sources of evidence which you can use to
support your point of view
• Consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and different
from, the points of view of other researchers
• Look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. For example, cost
effectiveness, environmental sustainability, scope of real-world application
PERSUASIVE ACADEMIC WRITING CONT…

• To present your argument, make sure:

• Your text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims
work together to support your overall point of view
• Your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader
• Your assumptions are valid
• You have evidence for every claim you make
• You use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant.
CRITICAL ACADEMIC WRITING

• Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing.
It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other
point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an
issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including
your own.
• For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate
the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation.
• Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article, or a literature
review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research.
• Examples of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and
'evaluate'.
CRITICAL ACADEMIC WRITING

• You need to:

• Accurately summarise all or part of the work. This could include identifying
the main interpretations, assumptions or methodology.
• Have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion could include
pointing out some problems with it, proposing an alternative approach that
would be better, and/or defending the work against the critiques of others.
• Provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the specific assignment
and the discipline, different types of evidence may be appropriate, such as
logical reasoning, reference to authoritative sources and/or research data.
EXPOSITORY WRITING
• Expository writing exists to explain a subject or
inform about a particular topic area. The goal is
simply to teach the reader something. Expository
writing should aim to answer any questions a
reader might have about a subject.
CONCLUDING STATEMENT

In many academic texts researcher will need to use more than one
type. For example, in an empirical thesis:
I. The researcher will use critical writing in the literature review to
show where there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
II. the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the
methods used to collect and analyse information
III. the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical when
reporting on the data collected
IV. the discussion section is more analytical, when relate findings back
to research questions, and also persuasive, when proposing own
(personal) interpretations of the findings.
HOW TO WRITE ACADEMIC PAPERS

Academic papers follow a particular structure including;

 Introduction which ushers a reader into the topic under discussion. In the introduction, the writer
needs to HOOK the reader
 Literature review- Survey the literature relating to the topic of study.
 Methodology-which includes methods of conducting the research.
 Results which explains the findings of the research
 Conclusion; offer a summary of your assessment, limitation and why, provide advice for further
research and end with the main contribution or relevancy.
 List of references
WHAT IS A REFERENCE?

• An acknowledgement that you have referred to

(cited) information from published sources in your
own work.
• In other words, it is a recognition that you have
borrowed other people’s work, ideas or opinions.
WHY REFERENCE?

• It gives published evidence to support

your own ideas/argument/point of view
or give examples
• It avoids Plagiarism - using other
people’s work and ideas as your own
without acknowledgement
• Helps others to trace your information
sources
WHEN TO REFERENCE

• A particular theory, argument or viewpoint

• Statistics, examples, case studies
• “Direct quotations” - writer’s exact words.
• Paraphrasing
HOW TO REFERENCE

• You need to reference in two places:

• Brief details, within the main body of your
assignment/proposal/report
• Full details, at the end of your
assignment/proposal/report
• What information do you need to include?
• Name(s) of the Author(s)
• Title
• When and where it was published
• Who published it
• Web site address and date you looked at it
CITATION IN THE TEXT

• Use only Surname and the year of publication (Sechambo, 2006)

• For two Authors: (Mwonge & Manene, 2012)
• For three Authors or more: Use only the Surname of the first Author
(Semango, et al., 2012)
• Example:
• Sechambo (2006) said that the SMEs have very limited
bank finance, ……………….
• It has been found that SMEs have very limited bank
finance (Sechambo, 2006).
DIRECT QUOTATIONS

• Direct Quotations: As Ajzen (1991; p. 181) argues that “the stronger

the intention to engage in behaviour, the more likely should be its
performance”
• As Ajzen argues that “the stronger the intention to engage in
behaviour, the more likely should be its performance (1991; p. 181).
• Paraphrasing: Intentions are indications of how hard people are
willing to try, and how much of an effort they are planning to exert in
order to perform the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)
USEFUL VERBS AND PHRASES FOR
INTRODUCING CITATION...

• As X states/ believes/ suggests

/indicates/ points out / observes/
explains/ argues/ outlines/ contradicts /
proposes, “…….”.
• For example, X has argued that “……”.
• According to X, “…….”.
• X suggests/ believes/ observes that
“…..”.
WRITING REFERENCE LIST

• At the end of your assignment/proposal/report

• For Books
• Authors. (Year). Title (it can be underlined or ltalicized). Publisher, City
where the book has been published
• Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and Structure. MIT Press, Cambridge.
• Miles, R. and C. Snow. (1978). Organizational Strategy, Structure and
Process. McGraw-Hill, New York.
• Adams, D. W., Graham, D., & von Pischke, J. D. (1984). Undermining
rural development with cheap credit. Boulder: Westview Press
WRITING REFERENCES…..

• Published articles
• Authors, (year). “Title of the article”, Name of the Journal, Vol no, (issue
no.), page numbers.

• Abor, J. and Biekpe, N. (2006). “SMEs' access

to debt finance: A comparison of male-owned
and female-owned businesses in Ghana”, The
International Journal of Entrepreneurship and
Innovation, Vol. 7(2), pg.105–112
• Ahl, H. (2006). “Why Research on Women
Entrepreneurs Needs New Directions”,
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 30(5),
595–621
WRITING REFERENCES….

• Chapter in a book:
• Author of Chapter, (Year). “Title of the Chapter”, in
(Authors of Book), Title of the Book. Publisher, City
where the book has been published
• Bourdieu, P. (1986) “Forms of Capital”, in John
G. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of Theory and
Research for the Sociology of Education.
Greenwood, New York.
WRITING REFERENCES…..

• Internet sources (as a footnote inside

the text)
• http://www.prowess.org.uk/documen
ts/WomensbusinessownershipSara
Carter.pdf
(accessed on 23.04 2008)
• Be Careful: A lot of the information on
the internet is not suitable as an
academic source.
REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHY –
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

• Reference List – a single alphabetical (by author)

list of everything you have specifically referenced
in your assignment (and nothing more).
• Bibliography – a list of sources you have read but
not specifically referenced in your assignment.
• It is recommended that you only use a Reference
List.
• Do not use a Bibliography unless your course
lecturers clearly state that they require this
REASONS FOR UNCLEAR WRITING

Lack of training in proper writing

Peer pressure leading to use of jargons and personal pronouns
Language barrier.
Lack of time for some students lack time for peer review

How to write clearly

Keep it short
Use clear subjects and make it obvious (make it understandable).
Use verbs and not nouns.
Avoid jargons.
ACADEMIC WRITING TIPS

1. Cite all the resources used: It's critical to cite any sources that referenced in
scholarly writing using a consistent style. This makes it easy for the reader to
understand how the researcher interpreted other people's work to arrive at a
conclusion.
2. Write concisely & summarise: This can help readers follow the researcher’s
argument, particularly when writing about complex topics. Look for places in the
writing where there may be repeated concepts stated previously or where is/are
use redundant phrases. When and where possible possible, the researcher
divides sentences of more than 25 words into two or more sentences.
3. Dedicating time for writing: Very helpful to allocate time in a day, at place of
work and/or at home; for writing.
4. Take note as soon as an idea comes along: important to have means of
recording (a paper and pen, a computer etc) ideas as and when they cross the
mind. This culture supports the writer to keep all ideas.
 ACADEMIC WRITING TIPS – CONT.

5 Building ideas as a group: often academic writing require building ideas as a

group for a example in writing an organisation strategic plan; writing joint project
proposal, writing project evaluation reports. The more the ideas, the richer the
writing.
6 Listening skills: Careful listening helps the researcher to retain all information
7 Reasoning: Possibility to use mental thinking correctly. This gives the writer
a chance to generate strong arguments on the subject in consideration
8 Technical literacy: The amount of knowledge known about a subject. This
defines the extent to which the writer will be able to write.
9 Attention to detail: The flow of ideas without deviating from the theme.
10 Data analysis: The knowledge of interpreting data to generate meaning.
11 Written and Verbal communication: The right command of written
expressions with proper grammar and sentence construction.
 WRITING TIPS AND TRAPS
Writing , like any other skill, is learned. One can learn to do it better.
A short list of writing tips for successful study in higher education include:-
Allocate a space at home and at work for your writing and reading materials.
Write often (many times, frequently)
Write on paper first, not on your PC.
Keep paragraphs short
Record book tittles and other sources accurately and fully in a secure place.
Think and write in full sentences.
WRITING TIPS AND TRAPS CONT.…

Avoid making unsupported knowledge claims.

Avoid language that may be interpreted as racist, sexist or otherwise offensive .
Always acknowledge sources of ideas.
Make paper copies and electronic backup copies of every assignment you write.
This might save serious grief later.
Traps include:
 Attraction to Plural Words
 Repeating yourself- Avoid repeating yourself as you write.
 Long paragraphs
 Unnecessary words
 Not writing all the time
• PRACTICAL
1. HOW TO WRITE ESSAY
2. HOW TO WRITE CITATION AND REFERENCES
3. REPORT WRITING
4. RESEARCH AND DISSERTATION