FIRST LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION AND
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Presented to
Ma’am Shumaila Ahmad
Presented by
1- Hadeeqa Rehman
2- Azba Manzoor
3- Bushra WaHEED
4- Mufakhira Shahzad
5- Majid Hussain
M. Phil Applied Linguistics (Semester
II)
UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT AND
TECHNOLOGY
CONTE What is FLA?

NT
PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

OUTLIN MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

E SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATE DEVELOPMENT

FACTORS AFFECTING FLA

ATYPICAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

BILINGUAL FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

 First Language Acquisition and Foreign
Language
First language acquisition
First Language Acquisition is the natural and unconscious process by which infants acquire their native
language (L1) through interaction with caregivers and their environment.
Example:
A child born in Pakistan grows up hearing Urdu from family members. By the age of 3–4, the child is able
to speak Urdu fluently without being formally taught grammar rules this is first language acquisition.

Foreign language learning

Foreign Language Learning is the conscious, often classroom-based process of learning a language. It
typically involves studying vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation through instruction.
Example:
A Pakistani student learning French at school or in a language course as a subject
Age of Onset From birth, during the critical Usually after childhood or during
period (0–6 years) school age

Method of Learning Unconscious, through interaction and Conscious, with instruction,

exposure memorization, and practice

Grammar Acquisition Needs formal instruction and practice

Implicit understanding of grammar to understand grammar rules.
rules without formal teaching

Fluency & Proficiency High level of fluency and full native- Varies — some achieve high fluency,
like competence but many struggle with pronunciation
and idiomatic usage

Motivation Innate — part of cognitive and social External — academic, professional,

development or personal goals
PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

 Phonological development begins at birth.
 Infants communicate before words — crying, cooing, babbling.
 Listening to speech starts from the first days of life.
 Babies can distinguish between languages and recognize voices.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING
 FLL learners often struggle with correct pronunciation and rarely
achieve native-like phonology.
 Foreign language learners begin directly with words and
sentences without going through these early vocal stages.
PRE-SPEECH VOCAL
DEVELOPMENT

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

 Infants go through several stages before first words.
 Listening leads to sound recognition (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/).
 Early stages help children build control over vocal cords.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

 Foreign language learners do not go through these natural
stages; they learn phonemes consciously.
FIVE STAGES OF Reflexive Vocalization:(0–6 weeks): crying, burping, breathing.
PRE-SPEECH
DEVELOPMENT
Cooing and Laughter (6–16 weeks): long vowels → vowel sequences.

Vocal Play (4–7.5 months): testing pitch, trying new sounds.

Canonical Babbling (6+ months): repeated syllables like mama, baba.

Variegated Babbling: mixing different consonants/vowels like dagaba.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

FLL learners don't babble in the new language; they memorize words
and sounds directly.
Natural Order of
Sound Acquisition
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
 Some sounds are acquired earlier than others.
 Order (approx.):
Vowels > Stops > Nasals > Glides > Liquids >
Fricatives > Affricates
Labials > Velars > Alveolars > Palatals >
Interdentals
 Influenced by frequency in world languages.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

 Learners may mispronounce less common or unfamiliar
sounds, especially if not found in L1.
 Children simplify speech to match their physical and cognitive
development.
 They can hear and distinguish sounds before they can produce
them. Articulatory
 These processes are systematic, predictable, and part of normal
development.
Processes
SUBSTITUTIO
N PROCESS
Children replace complex sounds with easier ones.
Types of Substitution
 Stopping: Fricative → Stop

/s/ → [t], /z/ → [d]

 Fronting: Sounds move forward in mouth

/k/ → [t], /ʃ/ → [s]

 Gliding: Liquid → Glide

/r/ → [w], /l/ → [j]

 Denasalization: Nasal → Oral Stop

/n/ → [d], /m/ → [b]

DELETION PROCESS

Children omit difficult or less noticeable

parts of words.
Types:
 Word-Final Consonant Deletion:
 car → [ka]
FLA deletions are due to stress
perception and articulation difficulty
 FLL learners may delete unfamiliar
sounds due to unfamiliarity or L1 habits
 SYLLABLE
SIMPLIFICATION
Children simplify complex syllables to CV structure.
Examples:
 spoon → [pun]
 skate → [ket]
 bread → [bed]
 glad → [gæd]

FLA simplification is part of natural development.

FLL simplification may occur due to difficulty with
clusters but is corrected through practice.
VOCABULARY
DEVELOPMEN
T IN EARLY
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
AND ITS
IMPLICATION
S FOR
FOREIGN
LANGUAGE
FIRST WORDS
AND
MILESTONE
First word typically
appears around 12 months
By 15–24 months, most
children have a
vocabulary of ~50 words
Common early words:
Food, family, animals,
toys, vehicles, clothing
FIRST 10 WORDS ACQUIRED BY 4 CHILDREN
 CROSS-LINGUSITIC
COMPARISON
(TARDIF et al., 2006)
Studied children learning English,
Cantonese, Mandarin
 Shared early words: mummy, daddy, bye,
hello, woof-woof
 But beyond first 20 words, big differences:

People terms: 30% (English), 43%

(Cantonese), 78% (Mandarin)
 Influenced by culture and caregiver
interaction
PROPORTION OF
PEOPLE TERMS IN
VOCABULARY
VOCABULARY
GROWTH
PATTERNS
Some children experience a
'word spurt' between 16–22
months
Others show gradual learning
without a clear spurt
Word spurts are triggered by
understanding language use, not
just brain growth
 THE MENTAL
LEXICON
 Mental dictionary containing
sound, meaning, and structure
info
Example: 'bottle' includes
pronunciation, morphology,
meaning, and syntax
Grows richer with more input
and usage
OVEREXTENTION
AND
UNDEREXTENTION
ERRORS
 Overextension: Word used too
broadly (e.g., all animals = 'dog')
Underextension: Word used too
narrowly (e.g., only one's own
dog = 'dog')
 Reflects uncertainty in concept
categorization
CONNECTION TO
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Similar basic vocabulary patterns
(people, food, etc.)
 Learners may also over/underextend
meanings in L2
 Cultural context and input shape L2
vocabulary
 Mental lexicon in L2 can be connected
or separate from L1
MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN FLA
 Morphology: Study of word structure — includes roots, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections.

Children begin producing morphemes

(smallest meaning units) after their first words.

Overgeneralization is common (e.g., goed, mouses) — reflects internal rule formation.
 ROGER BROWN’S 1973 LONGITUDINAL
STUDY- A FIRST LANGUAGE
Observed 3 English-speaking children (Adam, Eve,
Sarah)
Identified 14 morphemes acquired in a consistent order
First: -ing, plural -s, in/on → Later: past -ed, 3rd person -
s, contractible auxiliaries
 Order of acquisition influenced by:
• Semantic complexity: Morphemes with clear meaning
learned earlier (e.g., -ing)
• Input frequency: The more often a child hears a
morpheme, the earlier it's acquired
• Phonological regularity: Easier-to-pronounce forms are
learned earlier
ORDER OF ACQUISITION OF 14
GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES
MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Learners acquire morphemes in stages — similar to FLA
but slower and less consistent
 Common Errors: That means learners transfer the rules or
patterns from their first language into the new language — and
this can lead to incorrect grammar.
Three key factors influence morpheme acquisition (Ellis &
Larsen-Freeman, 2009 – Constructing a Second Language):
 Input Frequency: Learners acquire forms they hear
repeatedly in meaningful contexts (e.g., is eating, was playing)
 Explicit Instruction: Adult learners benefit from being taught
rules directly, then practicing through output
Conti…
 L1 Transfer: This is where learners rely on patterns from their first
language. For example, a Spanish learner might say:
• ❌ “Ella hablar bueno español” — literally: “She speak good Spanish”
✅ Correct form: “Ella habla bien el español” — “She speaks Spanish
well”
 Let’s break down the errors:

• hablar (to speak) was not conjugated; it should be habla to match ella
(she)
• bueno (good) is an adjective, but the sentence needs bien (an adverb)
• Article el is required before español in this structure
 This example clearly shows how L1 interference leads to incorrect
morpheme use in FLAQ. If not corrected, such errors often become
fossilized — part of the learner’s long-term language use.
 So ultimately, morpheme acquisition in FL learning is shaped by the
quality of input, the teaching approach, and the learner’s L1
background.”
THE WUG TEST- RULE APPLICATION IN
FLA
 The Wug Test (Jean Berko Gleason, 1958) demonstrated children’s ability to
apply grammatical rules to novel, invented words
• When shown one imaginary creature called a wug, and then two, children
replied: “Wugs”
• Proved that children were not simply memorizing forms, but internalizing
morphological rules
• a concept also echoed by Chomsky’s Universal Grammar theory.
• Also backed by recent research (Savic, 2021 – “Children’s Generalization of
Plural Morphemes”)
• Found that children as young as 4 could apply plural -s to unfamiliar words
across languages
• This shows that children, regardless of language, have a universal cognitive
DERIVATION AND COMPOUNDING IN FLA

 Derivation: Adding prefixes/suffixes to form new words (e.g., teach → teacher)

 Compounding: Joining two words to create new meaning (e.g., dog + house = doghouse)
 In FLA:

• Children show creativity — produce forms like ‘broomed’ to mean “I swept the floor
with a broom”
• ‘doggy-doctor’ for “veterinarian”
• Demonstrates rule-generation and productive word formation
 Clark’s study gives powerful evidence that in FLA, children are not passive learners —
they are active constructors of language, constantly applying what they know to
generate new and meaningful expressions.

(Clark, 2009 – First Language Acquisition)

 DERIVATION AND COMPOUNDING
IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE
 Learners often avoid creating new words
 Rely on derivation/compounding only if explicitly taught
 Spanish learners may say:

• ❌ “habladorar” — trying to say “to be talkative”

But this is incorrect. The correct word is “hablador” (a derived noun from hablar,
“to speak”).
The learner incorrectly added -ar (an infinitive suffix) based on general rules
they’ve seen.
 Another example:
❌ “librocaja” — combining libro (book) and caja (box) to mean bookshelf
But native speakers use “estantería” instead.
Foreign language learners might attempt compounding based on English-style
logic, but it results in non-native or incorrect formations.
(Nation & Webb, 2011 – Researching and Analyzing Vocabulary)
SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT
IN FLA
Syntax = Rules for how words form meaningful, grammatically correct
sentences.
Early Developmental Stages (FLA):
 One-word stage (Holophrastic) — ~12 months
→ One word represents a full idea (e.g., “Milk” = I want milk)
 Two-word stage — ~18–24 months
→ Simple combinations show relationships (e.g., “Want juice”, “Mommy
go”)
 Telegraphic stage — ~24–30 months
→ Multi-word utterances missing function words (e.g., “Daddy go work”)
 Negation — ~3 to 4 years
→ Shift from “No want” to “I don’t want it”
 MAIN STAGES OF
SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT
 SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT
IN FLA – COMPLEX
STRUCTURES
 Full Sentences — ~3.5 to 5 years

Children form grammatically complete structures

 Questions — ~3.5 to 5 years

Use of auxiliary verbs and inversion (e.g., “Where is mommy?”)

 Passive Constructions — ~5 years and beyond

Complex syntax: “The toy was broken by John”

 The most advanced form is the passive voice, like ‘The toy was broken by John’,
which emerges around 5 years and later. This structure is difficult because it's
rare in daily speech and requires a deep grasp of syntax and verb agreement.
 These findings are supported by Roeper’s 2011 research, which shows that even
if children can’t produce all forms perfectly, they understand complex rules very
early — demonstrating that syntax is part of a child’s innate linguistic system
MAIN STAGES OF L1 SYNTACTIC
DEVELOPMENT
 SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT IN FOREIGN
LANGUAGE
 Syntactic development in Foreign Language is slower, conscious, and
influenced by the native language (L1)
 Common Issues

1. Word Order Errors (due to L1 transfer)

In word order, Urdu speakers learning English might say: ‘He not
coming’ — omitting the auxiliary and following L1 word structure.
Similarly, a Spanish learner might say: ‘No ella está hablando nada’,
placing ‘no’ and the subject in the wrong order. The correct version is:
‘Ella no está hablando nada’ (She is not speaking anything).
2. Incorrect Negation
→ English: “She not like it”
→ Spanish: “No gusta ella la música” ❌ instead of ✅ “A ella no le
gusta la música”
 Conti…
 With negation, many learners drop or misplace words. Spanish
learners might say: ‘No gusta ella la música’, trying to say ‘She
doesn’t like music’. But in Spanish, we need a different
structure: ‘A ella no le gusta la música.’
 For question formation, errors are common due to lack of
auxiliary inversion. English learners say: ‘What she is doing?’
instead of ‘What is she doing?’
In Spanish, they might say: ‘¿Qué ella está haciendo?’ instead
of ‘¿Qué está haciendo ella?’
These errors show the difficulty of mastering subject–auxiliary
inversion when it doesn’t exist in the L1.
 Finally, passive voice is often avoided completely. For
example, Spanish learners may use only active structures like
‘María escribió la carta’ (María wrote the letter), and avoid ‘La
carta fue escrita por María’ (The letter was written by María)
— even though it’s grammatically correct.
COMMUNICATIVE
DEVELOPMENT
 Communicative Development in First Language Acquisition (FLA) refers to how
children gradually learn to use language for interaction, expression, and understanding in
real-life contexts.
 Piaget’s theory of Childhood Egocentrism

“Although children engage in a conversation what they actually say

has little to do with the previous statements spoken by
their conversation partner”
(Piaget, 1926)
 Collective monologues-where children talk past each other

rather than engage in true dialogue

 Example

Child 1: I love my dolly, her name is Lina.

Child 2: I'm going to color the sun yellow.
Reference
 THREE – MOUNTAIN TASK: ILLUSTRATING
EGOCENTRISM
 Piaget and Inhelder (1956) presented children (typically age 2–7) with a three-dimensional model of three
mountains, each with different size and features (e.g., with a hut, cross, snow)
 Children freely examined the model, then sat on one side as a doll was placed at a different viewpoint
 Children were shown 10 photographs representing different viewpoints and asked two questions:

• “What do you see?”

• “What does the doll see?”
 Success required picking the photo matching the doll’s perspective
 FINDINGS

• Preoperational Stage (Ages 4–6):

Children in this stage typically choose the photograph that matches their own
viewpoint, not the doll’s,
• Transition (Around Age 6):
Some children begin to show awareness that others might have a different perspective, but their responses are
 CONTI…
 Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7–8 and above):

Select the correct photograph representing the doll’s view

 Cognitive Interpretation

• Piaget argued that egocentrism is a defining feature of the preoperational stage

• Mastery of the Three Mountains Task signals entry into the concrete operational stage

Piaget, J. (1956). The child's conception of space. Routledge & Kegan Paul

AGE GROUP TYPICAL RESPONSE EGOCENTRISM LEVEL

4-6 YEARS CHOOSES OWN VIEWPOINT HIGH

6-7 YEARS MIXED RESPONSE TRANSITIONAL

7-8 YEARS CHOOSES DOLL’S LOW
VIEWPOINT CORRECTLY
PRIVATE SPEECH AND LANGUAGE PLAY
 PRIVATE SPEECH: talking to themselves- which serves as a practice mechanism
for language development
 LANGUAGE PLAY: Private speech often manifests as language play, including
activities like rhyming, making puns, and playful manipulation of sounds and
words.
 Berk and colleagues (1984) and others have shown that private speech often has a
dialogic structure, where children talk to themselves in question-answer formats or
on behalf of toys, reflecting its social origins and developmental importance
 According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1984), private speech eventually
internalizes into inner speech, which supports thinking and self-regulation
Berk, L. E., & Garvin, M. C. (1984). The role of private speech in the transition from
collective monologue to inner speech. Developmental Psychology, 20(6), 902–910.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.20.6.902
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech (N. Minick, Trans.). In R. W. Rieber &
A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol. 1, pp. 39–285).
Springer. (Original work published 1934)
 HUGHE’S 1975 POLICEMAN DOLL STUDY
A more child-friendly alternative to Piaget’s Three Mountains task that reveals early
perspective-taking abilities in pre-school children.
PPROCEDURE
 Participants: 30 children aged 3½ to 5 years, from Edinburgh

Stage 1 – Simple Visibility Task

• A model with two intersecting walls forming a “cross” shape was placed on a table.
• The policeman doll stood at the end of one “arm,” and the experimenter asked whether
the policeman could see the boy doll when it was moved into different quadrants
 Stage 2 – Hide-the-Boy Task:
Next, each child was instructed to place the boy doll in a location where the policeman
could not see it Again, children easily completed the task once they understood the
rules.
 Stage 3 – Dual-Perspective Task:

A second policeman doll was added to another arm of the cross-layout. The child was
asked to position the boy doll so that neither policeman could see it. This task required
accounting for two viewpoints simultaneously
 CONTI…
 Results:
• Overall, 90% of children (ages 3¾ to 4¾) got it right in the main
trials
• Performance stayed consistent (~88%–95%) across different age
sub-groups and even with added walls or a third policeman
 Interpretation & Implications

Early perspective-taking
Contrary to Piaget’s claim that egocentrism persists until around age
7, Hughes showed that by 3½–5 years, many children can decenter—
i.e., understand simultaneous multiple visual perspectives—if the
task is comprehensible and meaningful
 LIMITATION: Limited Sample Size
Hughes, M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh.
 COMMUNICATIVE DEVELOPMENT IN FLA
AND FL
Communicative Stage First language Acquisition (FLA) Foreign Language (FL)

Intentional Communication infant points or gestures to communicate needs Using gestures and simple words like “hola”
(e.g., waving “bye-bye”). (hello) and “adiós” (goodbye) to initiate
interaction. Teachers encourage use of gestures to
support meaning.

Expansion of Communicative Purposes Toddler says “More juice” or “Doggy!” to Beginner Spanish learners use simple phrases like
express needs or comment. “Quiero agua” (I want water) or “Mira el perro”
(Look at the dog) to express requests or
comments.

Conversational Initiative and Child initiates topics (“Look at my car!”) and Spanish learners practice initiating and
Responsiveness responds appropriately in short dialogues. responding in dialogues, e.g., “¿Quieres jugar?”
(Do you want to play?) and responding “Sí,
quiero jugar” (Yes, I want to play), often through
role-plays and scripted conversations.

Narrative Skills Development Child tells simple stories: “I went to the park. I Spanish learners develop narrative skills by
saw a dog.” describing past experiences using simple past
tense, e.g., “Fui al parque y vi un perro” (I went to
the park and saw a dog),
 FACTORS AFFECTING FLA
EXTERNAL FACTORS
INPUT AND EXPOSURE
 Hart and Risley (1995) found that “By 30 months, children exposed to more frequent and diverse
language input knew nearly twice as many words as those with less exposure.”
 Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis: (i+1)
 Child-directed Speech- Caregivers naturally modify their speech when talking to infants, a phenomenon
known as child-directed speech (CDS) or caregiver speech.
 CDS facilitates language learning by making input more comprehensible and engaging, thus
encouraging infants to attend to and imitate language (Fromkin et al., 2013).
References
 Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American
children. Paul H Brookes Publishing.
 Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2013). An introduction to language (7th ed.). Thomson
FEEDBACK AND RECASTS
 Feedback typically involves the modification of language for the
child’s development and improvement.
 Types of Feedback

1. Explicit Correction (Direct Feedback)

Example (David McNeil, 1960’s)
Child: Want other one shoe, Mummy.
Mother: You mean, you want the other shoe.
Child: Yes, I want other one shoe, please.
Mother: Can you say the other shoe ?
Child: Other… one… shoe.
MOTHER: No, say the other…….
 INDIRECT FEEDBACK
(RECASTS)
 Recasts are the reformulations of a child's incorrect utterance into a correct form without overtly pointing out the error.
 For example:

 Child: “I hungry.”
 Adult recast: “Yes, you are hungry.” (No correction of missing “am” explicitly)
 Example 2
 Child: “She playing.”
 Adult recast: “Yes, she is playing.” (Accurate correction of verb form)

(Lyster & Ranta, 1997)

 Corrective feedback, especially in the form of recasts, plays a significant role in second language acquisition by providing learners
with implicit correction that helps them notice and restructure their linguistic knowledge. Recasts offer learners a model of the correct
form without interrupting communication, facilitating language development by highlighting errors in a subtle way (Long, 1998; Ellis,
2005).
 Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1),
37–66. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034

 Long, M. H. (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
 Ellis, R. (2005). Instructed second language acquisition: A literature review. Wellington: Ministry of Education.
 EXTERNAL Factors in fla and FL
(Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2003)
ASPECTS FLA FL
Nature of Input Parents use child-directed speech: Spanish teachers use simplified
“Look at the doggy!” with language and gestures: “¿Dónde está
exaggerated intonation and simple el perro? (Where is Doggy?) to aid
words. comprehension.

Simplified vocabulary “Doggy” instead of “dog” “Perrito” instead of “perro” (Puppy)

Shorter sentences “¿Ves la pelota?” (Do you want
“See the ball?”
bread?”)
Slower speech “Let’s… go… outside.” “Vamos… a… leer” (Let's... Read)
Repetition “La mesa es grande. Sí, grande,
“Where’s the cat? The cat is here!” grande.” (The table is big. Yes, big,
big.”)
Expansion Child: “Dog run.” Adult: “Yes, the Learner: “Perro corre.” Teacher: “Sí,
dog is running!” el perro está corriendo.”
INTERNAL AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INNATE KNOWLEDGE

INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS posits that infants are born with an inherent ability to acquire
language, grounded in an innate set of grammatical principles known as Universal
Grammar (UG)
(Chomsky, 1965)
 NEUROLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BASIS
OF UG
 Brain Specialization: Language acquisition involves specialized brain
regions such as Broca’s area (syntax and speech production) and Wernicke’s
area (semantic processing). These areas interact dynamically to process and
produce language (Lee, 2025).
 Cognitive Mechanisms: Attention, memory, and problem-solving skills
support language learning. Children use these cognitive faculties to set UG
parameters based on linguistic input.
 The angular gyrus integrates phonological, semantic, and syntactic
information, supporting reading, writing, and higher-level language
functions.
• Lee, S. (2025). Mastering language acquisition: Universal grammar and neural
mechanisms. Number Analytics. Retrieved from
https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mastering-language-acquisition-universal-
grammar
 CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESES (AGE OF
EXPOSURE TO A LANGUAGE)
 The critical period hypothesis was first
proposed by neurosurgeons Wilder
Penfield and Lamar Roberts in their book
“Speech and brain mechanisms” (1959).
The critical period hypothesis gained
linguists' attention with Eric Lenneberg's
book Biological foundations of language
(1967).
 Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability
to reorganize itself by forming new neural
connections throughout life, especially in
response to learning a new language.
 EVIDENCE TO
SUPPORT
“NEUROPLASTICITY”
GENIE’S CASE
 The case of Genie, a feral child discovered in California in 1970 at the
age of 13 years and 7 months
 Genie had endured severe physical and mental abuse and extreme
social isolation, resulting in a complete lack of language input during
her early development.
 When rescued, she was malnourished, unable to stand or chew properly,
not toilet trained, and completely nonverbal
 While Genie could learn vocabulary relatively well, she struggled
profoundly with morphology and syntax
 Neurobiological studies suggested that Genie’s language processing
shifted to the right hemisphere of her brain
 This atypical lateralization is thought to result from her delayed
exposure to language,
CRITICAL PERIOD
EFFECTS IN FOREIGN
LANGUAGE
• Johnson and Newport (1989) studied Korean and Chinese immigrants
learning English.
• Those arriving before age 7 achieved near-native grammar proficiency.
• Learners arriving after puberty showed declining grammatical accuracy,
especially in morpho-syntax.
• This suggests that neurological plasticity and critical period constraints
limit adult learners’ ability to fully acquire L2 grammar, independent of
motivation or aptitude.
Reference
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second
language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition
of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60-99.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0
ATYPICAL LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT

 Atypical Language Development refers to a divergence from the

usual pattern of acquiring language due to neurodevelopmental,
sensory, or cognitive conditions.
 This may result in delays, deviations, or differences in the form,
content, or use of language.
 Atypical language development involves qualitative differences in
the trajectory of language acquisition, often associated with
neurodevelopmental disorders or sensory impairments.
• (Bishop, 2014, Journal of Child Psychology)
DEAFNESS AND
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT

• Deaf babies who acquire sign language from birth follow similar
language development milestones as hearing babies , including:

• Cooing and babbling – but using hand shapes instead of vocal

sounds.

• First sign often appears earlier than hearing babies’ first spoken
word.

• May be due to earlier control of hand movements than vocal

muscles (Petitto et al., 2001).
Stages of
Developmen
t
BLINDNESS AND
FIRST LANGUAGE (L1)
DEVELOPMENT
• Language development in blind children is largely intact and
comparable to sighted peers — but with some subtle
phonological and lexical differences.
• Phonological Development:
• Blind children may produce more articulation errors for
visually salient sounds:
• Bilabials (/b/, /m/)
• Labiodentals (/f/, /v/)Suggests that visual feedback from lip
movement supports accurate sound acquisition.
• Tadic, Pring & Dale (2009) found that blind children show
delayed mastery of visible phonemes due to lack of visual
cues.
VOCABULARY
DIFFERENCES
INTELLECTUA
L DISABILITY
(ID)
• While language development (L1) is often independent of other
cognitive skills, individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID)
frequently experience significant delays or impairments in language
acquisition.
• Defining Intellectual Disability (ID):
• Characterized by:
• IQ two or more standard deviations below the mean (i.e., IQ < 70).
• Limitations in adaptive functioning (e.g., communication, daily
living).
• May manifest from infancy or early childhood (APA, 2013)
DOWN
SYNDROME
• a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra
chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disability and
distinctive developmental and physical features.”
• Language Characteristics:
• Global delay in language acquisition (phonology, syntax,
semantics, pragmatics).
• Grammar particularly impaired—e.g., simplified sentence
structures.
• Phonological memory deficits are linked to delayed vocabulary
(Chapman et al., 2002).
WILLIAM SYNDROME

• Williams Syndrome is a rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion on chromosome 7, marked

by distinctive facial features, cardiovascular issues, and unusually strong verbal and social
skills (Mervis & John, 2010).
• Significance:

Insights into Language–Cognition Relationship

WS challenges classical views of cognition-language dependence: individuals often show
advanced expressive language despite cognitive impairments, supporting the modularity of
language
Comparison
Snapshot
AUTISM SPECTRUM
DISORDERS (ASD)

Definition
(Hodges et al., 2020)“Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a
neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in
social communication and the presence of restricted interests
and repetitive behaviors”
(Hodges et al., 2020)
Domain Impairment
Reduced response to name and poor gaze-following
Visual attention
(Klin et al., 2002)
Rare use of gestures, facial expressions in early
Gesture/Expression
communication
Repetitive, non-functional echoing of phrases (e.g.,
Echolalia
“Do you want juice?” repeated instead of answered)
Unusual pitch, rhythm, and intonation (Shriberg et al.,
Prosody
2001)
Difficulty with conversations, indirect requests, and
Pragmatics
perspective-taking (Tager-Flusberg, 2006)
Pronoun Reversal Saying “You want milk” to mean “I want milk”
 BILINGUAL FIRST
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
• Simultaneous Acquisition
• Children growing up with two languages typically know early who speaks which
language — they differentiate from ~2 years old
• (Genesee & Nicoladis, 2007)
• Code‑mixing (mixing language elements) is normal and systematic, not confusing .
• Cross‑linguistic Interference
• Early theories feared bilingualism causes confusion and cognitive impairment.
• Modern research shows bilingual children outperform monolinguals in
metalinguistic awareness, executive control, and reasoning when studies are
methodologically sound
 LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
TRAJECTORY

Measure Bilingual (each lang.) Monolingual Bilingual (combined)

Vocabulary size Slightly smaller Baseline Comparable or larger

Rate of vocabulary &

Slight lag Baseline Catch-up in grammar
grammar
 COGNITIVE BENEFITS
• Enhanced executive functions like inhibitory control, task switching, and attention—
from as early as toddlerhood

• Long-term bilingualism supports metalinguistic awareness, reasoning, and may delay

cognitive aging
(Bialystok & Craik, 2015; Bialystok et al., 2009)
Graph of language
development trajectory
FIRST LANGUAGE VS.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Category First Language (L1) Foreign Language (FL)

Age of Onset Infancy (0–3 years) Typically after age 7–10

Natural, immersive Classroom-based, limited real

Environment
(home/social) exposure
Varies (often non-native accent,
Outcome Native-like fluency
fluency)
 Feature First Language Foreign Language
Left hemisphere, Bilateral or right hemisphere
Brain Regions Activated
Broca’s/Wernicke’s dominant
Mostly explicit, conscious
Acquisition Path Implicit, unconscious learning
learning
Less sensitive, slower
Critical Period Sensitivity High (before puberty)
acquisition pace

First language acquisition is neurologically optimized

during the critical period, while FL learning after this
period often involves different cognitive strategies.”
(Pulvermüller & Schumann, 1994)
Feature First Language (L1) Foreign Language (FL)
Memorization-based,
Vocabulary Acquisition Gradual, intuitive
curriculum-driven
Emerges naturally (holophrastic
Grammar Development Taught in stages, rule-driven
→ complex)
Often plateaued unless
Fluency Attainment Native-like by age 6–7
immersed

Example:
Children acquiring Urdu from birth will naturally
use correct postpositions and verb inflections. A
learner studying Urdu as a foreign language may
struggle with these, even after years.