Mg + O Mg2+ + O2-
Mg + O
2+ 2-
Mg + O
2Na + O 2Na+ + O2-
Na + O + N
a
+ 2- +
Na + O + Na
2Al + 3O 2Al3+ + 3O2-
Al Al
O O O
3+ 3+
Al Al
2- 2- 2-
O O O
Ionic Bonding
• The strong electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
-
+
Na Cl
• Ionic bonding involves complete transfer of
electrons between atoms.
Ionic Compounds
• Ionic bonds form between a metallic element (with a
nearly empty outer shell, typified by group IA and
IIA) or ammonium ion (NH4+) and a non-metallic
element (with a nearly full outer shell, typified by
group VIA and VIIA) or a polyatomic ion(compound
ion).
• E.g. PbBr2, KNO3, NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4
Ionic Bonding
Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds form a three dimensional
giant lattice structure(crystal lattice).
• Lattice is a regular arrangement of alternating
positive and negative ions.
• Any given positive ion is attracted
simultaneously to all surrounding negative
ions and vice versa. Cations and anions are
packed so as to maximise the attractive
forces and minimise repulsion.
Ionic Compounds
• The formula of ionic compounds indicates the
ratio of cations and anions and gives no
overall charge.
• No molecules exist in ionic compounds.
Ionic Compounds
NaCl
Ionic compounds
CsCl
Ionic compounds
ZnS
Electron-dot diagram
(dot-cross diagram)
• Valency electrons are shown as dots or
crosses arranged around the symbol of
element.
Draw the lattice structure
NaI
Draw the lattice structure
Physical Properties
1) High m.p. and b.p.
Strong electrostatic attractions extend throughout the
ionic lattice. High temperature(energy) is required to
disrupt the lattice.
2) Electrical conductivity: non-conductors when solid,
good conductors when molten or in aqueous solution.
Electricity is freely moving charged particles flow in a
given direction in the presence of external electric
field.
Physical Properties
(solid) Ions are tightly held in fixed positions within the
ionic lattice.
(liquid) Ions are mobile(free to move) and carry charge.
(aq) Ions are mobile(free to move) and carry charge.
3) Hard and brittle
If a large force is applied to the ionic lattice it will
cause layers of ions to move so that like charged
ions will be lined up together. The lattice will break
apart cause the repulsions exceed the attractions.
4) Generally soluble in polar solvent(H2O)
Pictures
Bondings
Ionic
Na Cl
bondin
g
Covale FF F F
nt
bondin
g
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonds occur when non-metal share
pair of valency electrons so that each atom
achieves a noble gas electron configuration.
A covalent bond is the result of mutual
electrostatic attraction between two separate
nuclei for the same localised shared electron
pair.
Covalent bonding
non-bonding electrons
lone pairs
bonding pair
Covalent bonding is directional – along the axis
between the two atoms
Covalent bonding
Examples: H2O
H O H
Covalent bonding
Examples: H2O
H O H
Covalent bonding
Examples: NH3
H N H
H
Covalent bonding
Examples: NH3
H N H
H
Covalent bonding
Examples: CH4 H
H C H
H
Covalent bonding
Examples: CH4
H C H
H
Drawing Molecules
Electron-dot Diagrams:
.. .. H
..
: :
H OH H : :
NH H : :H
C
.. .. ..
Structural formulae: H H
H
-
H OH - H -
NH - - -H
H C
H H
• 1 pair of shared e single (covalent) bond
-
Multiple bonds
Eg O2
O
O
O OO
O
. .
: .. O O
=
O O
• 2 pairs of shared e- double (covalent) bon
Multiple bonds
Eg N2
..
:N . N
N N
N N
• 3 pairs of shared e- triple (covalent)
bond
Multiple bonds
Eg CO2
O C O
.. ..
.O. : C : O.
. O =C = O
Multiple bonds
Eg C2H2
H C C H
.
.
H .C . C. H H C
C H
Valency
the combining/bonding power (the maximum number of
valence bonds possible) of an atom or group of atoms
group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA/0
no. of valency 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons 2 for He
tend to … lose lose lose share gain or gain or gain or …
1e 2e 3e 4e share 3 share 2 share 1
valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Covalent molecular substances
(Simple molecular substances)
• Atoms are bonded by strong covalent bonds to
form clusters of atoms, known as molecules.
• Strong covalent bonds exist between atoms
within molecules, weak intermolecular forces
exist between molecules.
Physical Properties
1) Low to moderate m.p. and b.p.
Intermolecular forces between molecules are weak.
2) Non-conductors in any states
No ions present. Electrons are localised within atoms
or covalent bonds.
• Exceptions: HCl, H2SO4, NH3 etc react with H2O
producing mobile ions carrying charge and
conducting electricity.
3) Soft (when solid) and brittle
Intermolecular forces between molecules are weak.
Covalent network substances
Giant covalent substances
macromolecules
Atoms extend strong covalent bonds to all neighbouring
atoms resulting in a giant network structure.
Examples: boron(B), carbon(graphite & diamond),
silicon(Si), germanium(Ge), silicon dioxide(silica, SiO2)
and silicon carbide(SiC).
Covalent network substances
Diamond:
1) Each carbon atom is covalently
bonded with 4 other carbon atoms.
2) It has a tetrahedral structure.
Silicon dioxide:
1) Each silicon atom is covalently
bonded with 4 oxygen atoms.
2) Each oxygen atom is covalently
bonded with 2 silicon atoms.
3) It has a tetrahedral structure.
Physical Properties
1) Very high m.p. and b.p.
Strong covalent bonds occur between all atoms
within the structure.
2) Non-conductors of heat or electricity
Electrons are localised within atoms or covalent bonds.
* Exceptions: graphite (uses: electrodes) --- some
valence electrons are delocalised and carry charge.
Physical Properties
3) Very hard and brittle (P92)
Strong covalent bonds occur between all atoms
within the structure.
* Exceptions: graphite is soft (uses: lubricant, in
pencils)
--- Graphite has layers. Intermolecular force between
layers is weak so the layers can easily slide over
each other.
4) Insoluble in any solvent.
Metallic bonding
– Found in elemental metals
– Positively charged metal ions in lattice
– A mobile sea of electrons is holding them
together
– Metallic bonding is due to strong electrostatic
attraction between metal ions and mobile,
delocalised valence electrons.
Physical Properties
1) Good conductors of electricity and heat
in solid and molten state
Electrons are delocalised(mobile) and carry charge
(or heat energy as kinetic energy) through the
metallic lattice (vibration of metallic ions also
contributes to the flow of the heat).
2) Variable m.p. and typically high b.p.
Generally high m.p.
Exceptions: alkali metals and mercury have low m.p.
The m.p. of metals increases across the period and
decreases down the group.
3) Malleable and ductile, hard(alkali metals are soft)
Layers of atoms can slide over each other without
disrupting the metallic bonding, so metals can be readily
hammered into sheets (malleable) or drawn into wires
(ductile).
(a) The positions of atoms in a pure
metal crystal before a force is applied.
(b) After the forced is applied, slippage
has taken place. The layers in a pure
metal can slide over each other.
Alloy --- to improve the properties of metals
Alloy --- a mixture of a metal with other elements.
Alloys are stronger and harder because the different
sized atoms interrupt the orderly arrangement of
atoms in the lattice and prevent the layers from sliding
over each other as easily.
(a) The positions of atoms in a
pure metal crystal before a
force is applied.
(b) After the forced is applied,
slippage has taken place. The
layers in a pure metal can
slide over each other.
(c) In an alloy, slippage is
prevented because the atoms
of different size cannot slide
over each other.
Duralumin :Aluminium+ 4% copper and smaller amounts of other
elements, strong and light, used for aircraft building.
Comparison
