‫ةيئابرهكال ةسدنهال مسق – ةسدنهال‬

‫ةيلك‬
‫يناثال يساردال لصفال – م‪: 2022/ 2023‬يساردال‬
‫ةعبارال ‪:‬ةقرف‬
‫ماعال ةينمازتال تانيكامال ‪:‬ررقمال‬ ‫ال‬
‫ةرضاحمال‪2:‬‬ ‫‪E.M.F. EQUATION & ARMATURE WINDINGS‬‬
‫مقر‬ ‫ةرضاحمال‪:‬‬
‫‪Mr. MUBARAK MOHAMMED‬‬
‫ناونع‬
 OBJECTIVES

 Identify the excitation system of synchronous machines.

 Perform the emf equation of the alternator.
 Identify the pitch factor and distribution factor.
 Preform the effect of distributed winding in emf equation.
 Excitation System for Synchronous
Machines

 Excitation means production of flux by passing current in the field

winding.
 Direct current is required to excite the field winding on the rotor of
the synchronous machines.
 For small machines, dc is supplied to the rotor field by a d.c.
generator called exciter.
 Excitation System for Synchronous
Machines

• This exciter may be supplied current by a smaller d.c. generator

called pilot exciter.
• The main and pilot exciters are mounted on the main shaft of the
synchronous machine (generator or motor).
• The d.c. output of the main exciter is given to the field winding of
the synchronous machine through brushes and slip rings.
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Voltage Generation
 The rotor of the alternator is run at its proper speed by its prime
mover.
 The prime movers used for slow and medium speed alternators
are water wheels or hydraulic turbines. Steam and gas turbines are
used as prime movers in large alternators and run at high speeds.
 The steam-turbine driven alternators are called
turboalternators or turbogenerators.
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Voltage Generation
 As the poles of the rotor move under the armature conductors on the
stator, the field flux cuts the armature conductors. Therefore, voltage
is generated in these conductors.
 This voltage is of alternating nature, since poles of alternate polarity
successively pass by a given stator conductor. A 3-phase alternator
has a stator with three sets of windings arranged so that there is a
mutual phase displacement of 120°.
 These windings are connected in star to provide a 3-phase output.
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

E.M.F Equation of an Alternator

Let:
Φ = useful flux per pole in webers (Wb)
P = total number of poles total number of conductors or coil sides
in Zp = series per phase
Tp = total number of coils or turns per phase
n = speed of rotation of rotor in revolutions per second
(r.p.s.) f = frequency of generated voltage (Hz)
Since the flex per pole is Φ, each stator conductor cut a flux
equal PΦ.
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

E.M.F Equation of an Alternator

 The average value of generated voltage per conductor is
𝑑𝜑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟
= 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
=
𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
 Since n revolutions are made in one second, one revolution will be
made in 1/n second. Therefore, the time for on revolution of
the armature is 1/n second.
 So, the generated voltage per conductor is:
𝑃𝜑=
𝐸𝑎𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛𝑃𝜑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1/𝑛
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

E.M.F Equation of an
Alternator
𝑃𝑁
𝑓 =
 As we know: ⇒ Pn =

∴ 𝐸𝑎𝑣 /= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑛𝜑 = 2 𝑓 𝜑

2f
𝑃𝑛

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
120

 Since there are Zp conductor in series per phase, the average

voltage generated per phase is given by
∴ 𝐸𝑎𝑣 / 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2𝑓𝜑𝑍 𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

E.M.F Equation of an Alternator

 Since on turn has two sides (𝑍𝑝 = 2𝑇𝑝 )

∴ 𝐸𝑎𝑣 / 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4𝑓𝜑𝑇 𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

 For the sine wave the form factor is 1.11 (FF = Erms /
Eav)
∴ 𝐸/𝑟𝑚𝑠
∴ 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑝ℎ/𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
= ∗ 4𝑓𝜑𝑇 𝑝 =
= 1.11
4.44𝑓𝜑𝑇
 The above equation derived
4.44𝑓𝜑𝑇 𝑝
with the following assumptions:
• Coils have got full pitch.
• All conductors are concentrated in on stator slots.
 Armature Windings

 There are two types of windings in Synchronous Machines:

 The winding through which a current is passed to produce the

main flux is called the field winding.

 The winding in which voltage is induced is called the

armature winding.
 Armature Winding

The basic terms related to armature winding:

Turn: a turn consists of two conductors connected to one end by an end connector.
Coil: a coil is formed by connecting several turns in series.
Winging: a winding is formed by connecting several coils in series.

Turn Coil Winding

 Armature Windings

Electrical and Mechanical Degree:

 The concept of electrical degree is very useful in electrical machine
windings.
 The relation between electrical and mechanical degree
depend on the number of poles.
 If the machine has P-poles, electrical degree is defined as:
P
θ ed =
2
θ md
Pole pitch or pole span is the angular distance between the centers of
two adjacent poles of a machines.
 Armature Windings

𝑜
one pole pitch = 180 𝑜 e d =
360 md

P
Regardless of the number of poles in the machines, a pole-pitch always
180 electrical degree.

Coil span: coil span or coil pitch is the

distance between the two sides of a coil.
• Each side of a coil is placed in one slot coil span
on the stator surface.
 Armature Windings

Coil span factor or pitch factor:

 Coil span or coil pitch is the distance between the two sides of a coil.
 Pole span or pole pitch is the angular distance between the central
line of one pole to the central line of the next pole.
 A pole pitch is always 180 electrical degrees regardless of
the number of poles of the machine.
 A coil having a span or pitch equal to 180 𝑜 electrical is called a
full- pitch coil.
 A coil having a span or pitch less than 180 𝑜 electrical is called a
short-pitch coil, fractional-pitch coil or chorded coil.
 Armature Windings

 If the span of the coil is reduced by an angle α the coil span is

equal to (180 – α) electrical degrees.

Full-pitch coil Short-pitch coil

 Armature Windings

Calculation of pitch factor:

 In case of full-pitch coil the generated voltages of two coils are in
phase.
 The resultant voltage is equal to arithmetic sum of two coil
voltages.

If two coils are identical:

 Armature Windings

Calculation of pitch factor:

 In case of short-pitch coil the voltages generated in each coils are
not in phase.
 The resultant voltage is equal to phasor sum of two coil voltages.
 Armature Windings

Calculation of pitch factor (kc):

 The pitch factor (kc) is defined as the ratio of the voltage generated
in the short-pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full-pitch coil.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛
𝑘 𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡 ℎ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜 𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
= 180 𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑃 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜 𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡 ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜 𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝛼
2𝐴𝐷
= = =
𝐴𝐶
𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
cos 2𝐴𝐵

∴ 𝑘𝑐 =
2
2𝐴𝐵
cos
2

• For full-pitch coil 𝛼 = 0 𝑜 ⇒ 𝑘𝑐 =

1.
𝑜
 Armature Windings

Advantages of short pitching or chording:

 Shortens the ends of the winding leads to saving conductor material.
 Reduces effects of distorting harmonics.
 Improve the sinusoidal waveform of the generated voltages.
 Armature Windings

Distribution Factor kd:

 In a concentrated winding, the coil sides of a given phase are
concentrated in a single slot under a given pole.
 The individual coil voltages induced are in phase with each
other.
 These voltages may be added arithmetically. In order to determine
the induced voltage per phase, a given coil voltage is multiplied
by the number of series connected coils per phase.
 Armature Windings

 In actual practice, in each phase, coils are not concentrated in a single

slot, but are distributed in a number of slots in space to form a polar
group under each pole.
 The voltages induced in coil sides constituting a polar group are not
in phase but differ by an angle equal to the angular displacement ß of
the slots.
 The total voltage induced in any phase will be the phasor sum of the
individual coil voltages.
 Armature Windings

Distribution Factor kd:

 The distribution factor or breadth factor is defined as the ratio of the
actual voltage obtained to the possible voltage if all the coils of a
polar group were concentrated in a single slot.

𝑘�
𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐
=� 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑒
 Armature Windings

Calculation of distribution factor:

 Let m = number of slot per pole per phase
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑚
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 ×
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
=
 Let β = angular displacement between adjacent slots in electrical degree
𝛽 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
180 180 ×
=
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
=
 Armature Windings

 One phase of the winding consists of coils arranged

in m consecutives slots.
 Voltages 𝐸𝑐1, 𝐸𝑐2, 𝐸𝑐3…. Are the individual

 Each coil voltage 𝐸𝑐 will be out of phase with

coil voltages.

the next coil voltage by the slot pitch β.

 The arithmetic sum of coil
individual coil voltages is:
 Armature Windings

 Phasor sum of individual coil voltages is

∴ 𝑘�
𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐
= � 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒2× 𝑂𝐴×sin
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝 ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑒
= 𝑚𝛽/2
2×𝑂𝐴×𝑚×sin
𝛽/2

�= 𝑚
𝑘
∴ sin
� 𝑚 𝛽𝛽//22
sin
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Actual voltage generated

 Taking the coli span factor and distribution factor into
account, the actual generated voltage per phase is given by:
∴ 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 / 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
4.44𝑘 𝑐 𝑘 𝑑 𝑓𝜑𝑇𝑝
volt
 The quantity (𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑇𝑝 ) called effective turn per phase
(𝑇𝑒𝑝 ). ∴ 𝑇𝑝 =
𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑇𝑝
 The quantity ( 𝑘 𝑐 𝑘 𝑑 ) called winding factor
(𝑘𝑤 ). ∴ 𝑘𝑤 = 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑
𝐸𝐿 = 3𝐸𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Alternative terms of the voltage E

 Open-circuit voltage/phase
 No-load voltage/phase
 Excitation e.m.f./phase
 Internal machine voltage/phase
 Voltage behind synchronous reactance/phase

The angle between the terminal voltage V and the internal voltage
E is the machine angle or rotor angle δ.
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Example 1:
A 3-phase, 6-pole, star-connected alternator revolves at 1000 r.p.m,
The stator has 90 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.05 W. (sinusoidally distributed). Calculate the voltage generated by
the machine if the winding factor is 0.96.
Solution:
𝑃𝑁
𝑓 = = 50 𝐻𝑧
6×1000
=
120 120
Total number of stator conductors :
E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines
 E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines

Example 2:
A 3-phase, 16-pole synchronous generator has a resultant air-gap flux
of 0.06 Wb per pole. The flux is distributed sinusoidally over the
pole. The stator has 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per
slot are accommodated in two layers. The coil span is 150° electrical.
Calculate the phase and line induced voltages when the machine runs
at 375 r.p.m.
Solution:
𝑃𝑁 𝑠
𝑓 = = 50 𝐻𝑧
16×375
=

𝛼 = 180° − 150° = 30°

120 120
E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines
E.M.F Equation of Synchronous Machines
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