Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Cryptographic Tools
Symmetric Encryption
the universal technique for providing
confidentiality for transmitted or stored
data
also referred to as conventional encryption
or single-key encryption
two requirements for secure use:
need a strong encryption algorithm
sender and receiver must have obtained copies
of the secret key in a secure
fashion and must keep
the key secure
Figure 2.1
Attacking Symmetric
Encryption
Cryptanalytic Brute-Force
Attacks Attack
rely on: try all possible keys on
nature of the some ciphertext until
algorithm an intelligible
some knowledge of the translation into
general characteristics plaintext is obtained
of the plaintext on average half of all
some sample plaintext- possible keys must be
ciphertext pairs tried to achieve
exploits the success
characteristics of the
algorithm to attempt to
deduce a specific
plaintext or the key being
used
if successful all future
Table 2.1
Average Time Required for Exhaustive Key
Search
Table 2.2
Comparison of Three Popular
Symmetric Encryption Algorithms
Data Encryption Standard
(DES)
the most widely used
encryption scheme
• FIPS PUB 46
• referred to as the Data Encryption
Algorithm (DEA)
• uses 64 bit plaintext block and 56
bit key to produce a 64 bit
ciphertext block
strength concerns:
• concerns about algorithm
• DES is the most studied encryption
algorithm in existence
• use of 56-bit key
• Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF)
announced in July 1998 that it had
broken a DES encryption
Fig
ure
2.2
Figure 2.2 Time to Break a Code (assuming 106 decryptions/ms) The
graph assumes that a symmetric encryption algorithm is attacked using
a brute-force approach of trying all possible keys
Triple DES (3DES)
repeats basic DES algorithm three times
using either two or three unique keys
first standardized for use in financial
applications in ANSI standard X9.17 in 1985
attractions:
168-bit key length overcomes the vulnerability
to brute-force attack of DES
underlying encryption algorithm is the same as
in DES
drawbacks:
algorithm is sluggish in software
uses a 64-bit block size
Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES)
NIST called
selected
needed a for
Rijndael in
replacement proposals
November
for 3DES for a new
2001
AES inhave
should 1997
a
security strength
equal to or better
than 3DES
significantly
3DES was not improved efficiency
published as
reasonable for
FIPS 197
long term use symmetric block
cipher
128 bit data and
128/192/256 bit keys
Practical Security
Issues
typically symmetric encryption is applied to
a unit of data larger than a single 64-bit or
128-bit block
electronic codebook (ECB) mode is the
simplest approach to multiple-block
encryption
each block of plaintext is encrypted using the
same key
cryptanalysts may be able to exploit regularities
in the plaintext
modes of operation
alternative techniques developed to increase
Block
Cipher
Encryption
Stream
Encryption
Block & Stream
Ciphers
Block
Cipher
• processes the input one block of elements at a time
• produces an output block for each input block
• can reuse keys
• more common
Stream
Cipher
• processes the input elements continuously
• produces output one element at a time
• primary advantage is that they are almost always faster
and use far less code
• encrypts plaintext one byte at a time
• pseudorandom stream is one that is unpredictable
without knowledge of the input key
Message
Authentication
protects
against active
attacks
verifies • contents have not been
received altered
• from authentic source
message is • timely and in correct
sequence
authentic
can use
• only sender & receiver
conventional share a key
encryption
Message Authentication
Codes
Secure
Hash
Functions
Figure 2.6
Message
Authenticatio
n Using a
One-Way
Hash Function
Hash Function
Requirements
can be applied to a block of data of any
size
produces a fixed-length output
H(x) is relatively easy to compute for
any given x
one-way or pre-image resistant
computationally infeasible to find x such that
H(x) = h
second pre-image resistant or weak
collision resistant
computationally infeasible to find y ≠ x such
that H(y) = H(x)
collision resistant or strong collision
resistance
Security of Hash
Functions
there are two approaches to attacking a
secure hash function:
cryptanalysis
exploit logical weaknesses in the algorithm
brute-force attack
strength of hash function depends solely on the length
of the hash code produced by the algorithm
SHA most widely used hash algorithm
additional secure hash function applications:
passwords
hash of a password is stored by an operating
system
intrusion detection
store H(F) for each file on a system and secure the
hash values
Public-Key Encryption
Structure
asymmetri
publicly c some form
proposed based on • uses two of protocol
by Diffie mathemati separate is needed
and cal keys for
Hellman in functions • public key distributio
1976 and private n
key
• public key
is made
public for
others to
use
Figure 2.7a
Public-Key Encryption
plaintext
readable
message or data
that is fed
into the
algorithm as
input
encryption
algorithm
performs
transformations
on the
plaintext
public and
private key
pair of keys,
***directed toward providing confidentiality one for
encryption, one
for decryption
ciphertext
scrambled
message
Figure 2.7b
Private-Key Encryption
user encrypts
data using his
or her own
private key
anyone who knows
the
corresponding
public key will
be able to
decrypt the
message
***directed toward providing authentication
Table 2.3
Applications for Public-Key
Cryptosystems
Requirements for Public-Key
Cryptosystems
computationally
easy to create
key pairs
computationally
useful if either easy for sender
key can be used knowing public
for each role key to encrypt
messages
computationally computationally
infeasible for easy for
opponent to receiver
otherwise knowing private
recover original key to decrypt
message computationally ciphertext
infeasible for
opponent to
determine
private key from
public key
Asymmetric Encryption
Algorithms
RSA most widely block cipher in
(Rivest, developed in 1977
accepted and
implemented
which the plaintext
and ciphertext are
Shamir, approach to public-
key encryption
integers between 0
and n-1 for some n.
Adleman)
Diffie- enables two users to
securely reach
Hellman agreement about a
shared secret that
limited to the
key can be used as a
secret key for
exchange of the
keys
exchange subsequent
symmetric
encryption of
algorithm messages
Digital
Signature provides only a
digital signature
cannot be used for
encryption or key
Standard function with SHA-1 exchange
(DSS)
Elliptic
curve security like RSA,
but with much
cryptograp smaller keys
hy (ECC)
Digital Signatures
used for authenticating both source and
data integrity
created by encrypting hash code with
private key
does not provide confidentiality
even in the case of complete encryption
message is safe from alteration but not
eavesdropping
Public Key Certificates
Digital
Envelope
s
protects a
message without
needing to first
arrange for sender
and receiver to
have the same
secret key
***equates to the same
thing as a sealed
envelope containing
an unsigned letter
Random
Number keys for public-key
algorithms
s stream key for
symmetric stream
cipher
symmetric key for
use as a temporary
session key or in
creating a digital
envelope
handshaking to
Uses include prevent replay
attacks
generation of: session key
Random Number Requirements
Randomness Unpredictability
criteria: each number is
uniform distribution statistically
frequency of independent of other
occurrence of each numbers in the
of the numbers sequence
should be
opponent should not
approximately the
same be able to predict
independence future elements of the
no one value in the sequence on the basis
sequence can be of earlier elements
inferred from the
others
Random versus
Pseudorandom
cryptographic applications typically make use of
algorithmic techniques for random number
generation
algorithms are deterministic and therefore
produce sequences of numbers that are not
statistically random
pseudorandom numbers are:
sequences produced that satisfy statistical
randomness tests
likely to be predictable
true random number generator (TRNG):
uses a nondeterministic source to produce
randomness
most operate by measuring unpredictable natural
Practical Application:
Encryption of Stored Data
common to encrypt transmitted data
much less common for stored data
there is often little
protection beyond
domain
authentication and
operating system
access controls approaches to encrypt
data are archived for
indefinite periods
stored data:
use a
commercially background
back-end library based tape
available laptop/PC data
appliance encryption
even though erased, encryption encryption
until disk sectors are package
reused data are
recoverable
