CHARACTERISTICS, METHODS

OF IDENTIFICATION,
CLASSIFICATION AND USES
OF VIRUSES.

GROUP 1. PRESENTATION
MEDICINE & SURGERY.
 GROUP MEMBERS

• ADEBOLE MARK OLUWASEUN

• ADEBOYE VICTOR ADEDOYIN
• APYEYAK PUNARIMAM JOY JOSEPHINE
• ASHIRU FATIMA YARO
• AYODELE OLORUNTOYOSI PAUL
• BABA RUTH SAIRIA
 WHAT ARE VIRUSES?

• VIRUSES ARE MICROSCOPIC INFECTIOUS AGENTS THAT REQUIRE A LIVING

HOST TO REPRODUCE. IT IS MADE UP OF A SINGLE OR DOUBLE STRANDED
DNA OR RNA ENCLOSED WITHIN A PROTEIN COAT.
UNLIKE BACTERIA AND OTHER MICROORGANISMS, VIRUSES ARE NOT
CONSIDERED LIVING ORGANISM BECAUSE THEY CANNOT CARRY OUT
METABOLIC PROCESSES, GROW , OR REPRODUCE INDEPENDENTLY. INSTEAD,
THEY NEED A HOST CELL TO INVADE AND THUS REPRODUCE.
EXAMPLES OF VIRUSES ARE; INFLUENZA, SMALL POX VIRUS, HERPES VIRUS,
CORONAVIRUS, ETC.
.
 STRUCTURE OF A VIRUS

• GENETIC MATERIAL: CAN BE DNA OR RNA BUT NEVER BOTH. IT CAN ALSO BE
SINGLE STRANDED OR DOUBLE STRANDED.
• PROTEIN COAT OR CAPSID: MADE UP OF PROTEINS CALLED CAPSOMERES.
IT PROTECTS THE VIRAL GENOME.
• ENVELOPE: EMBEDDED WITH VIRAL GLYCOPROTEINS, WHICH HELP IN HOST
CELL ATTACHMENT.
• ENZYMES: SOME VIRUSES CARRY SPECIALIZED ENZYMES SUCH AS REVERSE
TRANSCRIPTASE (HIV) WHICH CONVERTS RNA INTO DNA, AND RNA
POLYMERASE.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUS

THESE ARE CERTAIN MORPHOLOGICAL OR PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES THAT DIFFERENTIATE

VIRUSES FROM OTHER ORGANISMS;
• ACELLULAR NATURE: VIRUSES ARE NOT MADE UP OF CELLS, THEY CONSISTS OF GENETIC
MATERIAL ENCLOSED IN A PROTEIN COAT.
• OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES: THEY CANNOT REPRODUCE OUTSIDE A HOST
CELL; THEY RELY ON HOST’S MACHINERY FOR REPLICATION.
• LACK OF METABOLISM: VIRUSES DO NOT CARRY OUT METABOLIC ACTIVITIES, THEY DO NOT
PRODUCE ENERGY OR SYNTHESIZE PROTEINS INDEPENDENTLY.
• SMALL SIZE: VIRUSES ARE MUCH SMALLER THAN BACTERIA, TYPICALLY RANGING FROM 20
TO 300 NANOMETERS.
• DIVERSITY OF SHAPES: THEY EXHIBIT DIFFERENT STRUCTURES SUCH AS
HELICAL, ICOSAHEDRAL, OR COMPLEX SHAPES.
• HOST SPECIFICITY: VIRUS INFECT SPECIFIC HOSTS OR EVEN SPECIFIC CELL TYPE
WITHIN A HOST (E.G. HIV TARGETS T CELLS).
• GENETIC VARIABILITY: THEY MUTATE RAPIDLY, LEADING TO NEW VARIATIONS
AND STRAINS, AS SEEN IN INFLUENZA AND COVID-19.
• INABILITY TO GROW ON ARTIFICIAL MEDIA: UNLIKE BACTERIA, VIRUSES
REQUIRE LIVING CELLS (E.G. ANIMAL, PLANT, OR BACTERIAL CELLS) FOR
CULTIVATION.
 METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION OF VIRUSES

COMMON METHODS OF IDENTIFYING VIRUSES INCLUDES:

• MICROSCOPY BASED METHODS
• SEROLOGICAL (IMMUNOLOGICAL) METHODS
• MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES
• CELL CULTURE METHOD
• RAPID DIAGNOSTIC TESTS (RDTS).
 MICROSCOPY BASED METHODS

• ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (EM):

A HIGH-RESOLUTION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IS USED TO VISUALIZE THE VIRUS

MORPHOLOGY. IT IDENTIFIES THE VIRUS BASED ON SHAPE, SIZE AND SURFACE.
THIS METHOD IS USED TO DETECT ROTAVIRUS AND NOROVIRUS.

• IMMUNOELECTRON MICRROSCOPY (IEM):

THIS COMBINES ELECTRON MICROSCOPY WITH ANTIBODIES THAT BIND TO SPECIFIC

VIRUSES. IT HELPS IN BETTER VISUALIZATION AND IDENTIFICATION.
 SEROLOGICAL (IMMUNOLOGICAL) METHODS
SEROLOGICAL TESTS DETECT VIRAL ANTIGENS OR HOST ANTIBODIES AGAINST THE VIRUS..
• ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA):

DETECTS VIRAL ANTIGENS (DIRECT ELISA) OR ANTIBODIES AGAINST VIRUSES (INDIRECT

ELISA). IT IS USED FOR HIV, HEPATITIS B AND DENGUE VIRUS DETECTION.
• WESTERN BLOT:

DETECTS VIRAL PROTEINS USING ANTIBODIES. USED AS A CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR HIV.
• NEUTRALIZATION TESTS:

IDENTIFY VIRUSES BY MIXING THEM WITH SPECIFIC ANTIBODIES AND OBSERVING THEIR
ABILITY TO INFECT CELLS. USED FOR INFLUENZA VIRUS TYPING.
• HEMAGGLUTINATION AND HEMAGGLUTINATION INHIBITION ASSAY:

SOME VIRUSES; SUCH AS INFLUENZA VIRUS, CAUSE RED BLOOD CELL CLUMPING. ANTIBODIES
PREVENT CLUMPING, INDICATING VIRUS PRESENCE.
 MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES
THESE ARE THE MOST ACCURATE AND WIDELY USED METHODS FOR VIRUS DETECTION.
• POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR):

DETECTS AND AMPLIFIES VIRAL DNA OR RNA. USED FOR COVID-19, HIV, AND HEPATITIS B
DETECTION.
• REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION PCR (RT - PCR):

CONVERTS VIRAL RNA TO DNA BEFORE AMPLIFICATION. USED FOR RNA VIRUSES SUCH AS
INFLUENZA.
• QUANTITATIVE PCR:

MEASURES THE AMOUNT OF VIRAL GENETIC MATERIAL IN REAL TIME. USED TO DETERMINE
VIRAL LOAD IN HIV AND HEPATITIS C INFECTIONS.
• NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING(NGS):

IDENTIFIES UNKNOWN VIRUSES BY SEQUENCING THEIR ENTIRE GENOME. USED FOR

 CELL CULTURE METHODS
• VIRUS ISOLATION IN CELL CULTURES:
HERE, VIRUS ARE GROWN IN LIVING CELLS SUCH AS HUMAN OR ANIMAL CELL LINES.
CYTOPATHIC EFFECTS SUCH AS DEATH OR SYNCYTIA FORMATION HELP IN
IDENTIFICATION. THIS METHOD IS USED IN IDENTIFY VIRUSES LIKE HERPES SIMPLEX
VIRUS AND INFLUENZA VIRUS.

• CHICK EMBRYO INNOCULATUION::

VIRUS ARE GROWN IN FERTILIZED CHICKEN EGGS AND OBSERVED FOR EFFECTS.
USED FOR INFLUENZA VIRUS VACCINE PRODUCTION.

• LABORATORY ANIMAL INNOCULATION:

SOME VIRUSES REQUIRE LIVE ANIMALS FOR STUDY. EXAMPLE IS RABIES VIRUS IN
 RAPID DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

• LATERAL FLOW IMMUNOASSAYS:

DETECT VIRAL ANTIGENS OR ANTIBODIES WITHIN MINUTES. EXAMPLE IS
COVID-19 ANTIGEN TESTS, RAPID DENGUE TESTS.
 CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES

VIRUSES ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON THEIR GENOMES TYPE, STRUCTURE, AND REPLICATION
STRATEGY. THE MAIN CATEGORIES ARE:
BASED ON GENOME TYPE:
UNDER THIS WE HAVE; DNA VIRUSES, RNA VIRUSES, RETROVIRUSES.
DNA VIRUSES;
 DOUBLE STRANDED DNA (DSDNA) E.G. HERPESVIRUSES, POX VIRUSES.
 SINGLE STRANDED DNA (SSDNA) E.G. PARVOVIRUSES.

RNA VIRUSES;
 POSITIVE SENSE SINGLE STRANDED RNA (+SSRNA) E.G. CORONAVIRUSES, FLAVIVIRUSES.
 NEGATIVE SENSE SINGLE STRANDED RNA (-SSRNA) E.G. INFLUENZA, RABIES.
 DOUBLE STRANDED RNA (DSRNA) E.G. ROTAVIRUSES.
RETROVIRUSES;
 RNA VIRUSES THAT USE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE TO CONVERT RNA INTO DNA
E.G. HIV.
 BASED ON STRUCTURE AND MORPHOLOGY
• ENVELOPED VIRUSES; HAVE A LIPID MEMBRANE E.G. INFLUENZA, HIV.
• NON ENVELOPED (NAKED) VIRUSES; LACK A LIPID ENVELOPE E.G. ADENOVIRUSES.
• CAPSID SHAPE; ICOSAHEDRAL( I.E. A POLYHEDRON HAVING 20 FACES OF WHICH ALL ARE
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES), HELICAL OR COMPLEX.
 CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN VIRUSES
NOW, FOCUSING ON VIRUSES THAT INFECT HUMANS, WE HAVE; DNA VIRUSES, RNA VIRUSES,
RETROVIRUSES. HERE IS A DETAILED BREAKDOWN;
DNA VIRUSES THAT INFECTS HUMAN

1. HERPESVIRIDAE (DSDNA, ENVELOPED)

• HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS (HSV-1, HSV-2); CAUSES ORAL/GENITAL HERPES.
• VARICELLA ZOSTER VIRUS (VZV); CAUSES CHICKENPOX AND SHINGLES.
• EPSTEIN BAR VIRUS (EBV); LINKED TO MONONUCLEOSIS AND SOME CANCERS.
• CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (CMV); DANGEROUS IN IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PEOPLE.
2. POXVIRIDAE (DSDNA, ENVELOPED)
• VARIOLA VIRUS; CAUSES SMALL POX (ERADICATED).
• MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM VIRUS; CAUSES SKIN LESIONS.

3. ADENOVIRIDAE (DSDNA, ENVELOPED)

• ADENOVIRUSES; CAUSES RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS, CONJUNCTIVITIS.

4. PAPILLOMAVIRIDAE (DSDNA, NON ENVELOPED)

• HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS (HPV); CAUSES WARTS, CERVICAL CANCER.

5. HEPADNAVIRIDAE (DSDNA ENVELOPED)

• HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV); CAUSES CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE.
6. PARVOVIRIDAE (SSDNA, NON ENVELOPED)
• PARVOVIRUS B19; CAUSES FIFTH DISEASE (SLAPPED CHEEK SYNDROME).
RNA VIRUSES THAT INFECT HUMAN

1.CORONAVIRIDAE (+SSRNA, ENVELOPED)

• SARS-COV, MERS-COV, SARS-COV 2 (COVID-19)
2.ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE (-SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• INFLUENZA A,B, AND C; CAUSES SEASONAL FLU AND PANDEMICS.
3. PARAMYXOVIRIDAE (-SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• MEASLES VIRUS; CAUSES MEASLES.
• MUMPS VIRUS; CAUSES MUMPS.
• RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS (RSV); AFFECTS INFANTS’ RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
4. FLAVIVIRIDAE (+SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• DENGUE VIRUS; CAUSES DENGUE FEVER.
• ZIKA VIRUS; CAUSES BIRTH DEFECT.
• YELLOW FEVER VIRUS; CAUSES HEMORRHAGIC FEVER.
• HEPATITIS C VIRUS (HCV); CAUSES LIVER DISEASE
5. TOGAVIRIDAE (+SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• RUBELLA VIRUS; CAUSES GERMAN MEASLES.
6. FILOVIRIDAE (-SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• EBOLA VIRUS; CAUSES HEMORRHAGIC FEVER.
• MARBURG VIRUS; ALSO CAUSES HEMORRHAGIC FEVER.
7. RHABDOVIRIDAE (-SSRNA, ENVELOPED)
• RABIES VIRUS; CAUSES FATAL ENCEPHALITIS.
8. REOVIRIDAE (DSRNA, NON-ENVELOPED)
• ROTAVIRUS; CAUSES SEVERE DIARRHEA IN INFANTS.
RETROVIRUSES (RNA VIRUSES THAT USES REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE)

1. RETROVIRIDAE.
2. HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV); CAUSES AIDS.
3. HUMAN T-CELL LEUKEMIA VIRUS (HTLV); LINKED TO CANCER.
 USES OF VIRUSES
VIRUSES ARE USED IN VARIOUS ASPECTS OF MEDICINE AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY.
SOME OF ITS ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE INCLUDES;
1. MEDICAL RESEARCH AND THERAPY:
• GENE THERAPY; VIRUSES E.G. ADENOVIRUSES, LENTIVIRUSES, ARE USED TO DELIVER
CORRECTED GENES TO TREAT GENETIC DISORDERS.
• ONCOLYTIC VIRUSES; SOME VIRUSES ARE ENGINEERED TO SELECTIVELY KILL CANCER
CELLS E.G. T-VEC FOR MELANOMA.

2. VACCINE DEVELOPMENT:
• ATTENUATED OR INACTIVATED VIRUSES ARE USED IN VACCINES, E.G. MEASLES, POLIO, FLU
VACCINES.
• VIRAL VECTORS ARE USED IN COVID-19 VACCINES E.G. ASTRAZENECA, JOHNSON &
3. BIOTECHNOLOGY:
• BACTERIOPHAGES ARE USED AS ALTERNATIVES TO ANTIBIOTICS IN PHAGE THERAPY.
• VECTORS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; VIRUSES HELP INTRODUCE FOREIGN DNA INTO
CELLS FOR GENETIC ENGINEERING E.G. IN CRISPR TECHNOLOGY.

4. AGRICULTURE AND PEST CONTROL:

• CERTAIN VIRUSES (BACULOVIRUSES) ARE USED TO CONTROL INSECT PESTS IN FARMING.

5. NANOTECHNOLOGY:
VIRAL NANOPARTICLES ARE EXPLORED FOR DRUG DELIVERY AND IMAGING IN MEDICAL
DIAGNOSTICS.
THANK YOU…