ENGG ZC111

Electrical & Electronics Technology

LECTURE -10
BITS Pilani 1.9.2012
K K Birla Goa Campus C.Balakrishna Moorthy
 Sequence of Presentation
• Introduction

• Classification of Synchronous machines

• Brief construction details

Introduction ( Synchronous machines)
• The armature winding
• exports a.c. power ( generator) or
• imports a.c power ( motor )

• Double excited energy conversion devices

• The armature winding is on stator and e.m.f.

is induced in the winding

• The field winding is on rotor and the field

winding is excited from dc supply
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

• Alternators do not require commutation

• the field coils are made to rotate while the
armature windings are stationary
• The large heavy armature windings are in
the stator
• the lighter field coils are mounted on the
rotor and direct current is fed to these by
a set of slip rings
 Advantages of stationary armature -
rotating field
i) Easier to collect large currents from a
stationary member.

ii) The LV dc excitation easily supplied through

slip rings and brushes to the rotor field
winding.
 Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

Stator:
Laminated core with slots to hold the
armature conductors.
Rotor:
i) Salient pole type –
Projecting poles dove tailed on the shaft -
Used in low speed alternators driven by water
turbines or IC engines.
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

ii) Non Salient pole type

Smooth cylindrical rotor
- slots cut to house the field winding
- used in high speed alternators driven by steam
turbines
- smaller diameter and larger axial length compared
to salient pole type machines, of the same rating.
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

A four-pole alternator
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

When operating as a generator,

1. Mechanical energy is fed from a prime mover

to rotor

2. Voltage is induced in the stator windings

3. When electrical load is connected to stator,

electrical energy is delivered to it, i.e., current
flows in the armature winding
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)
• When running as a motor,
1. Electrical (ac) power is fed to stator
2. Mechanical power is taken from the shaft
3. Torque is produced in the rotor

• Synchronous machine always run at

synchronous speed [ ns = (120.f) / P ]
Introduction ( Synchronous machines)

• Advantages of Synchronous machine

compare to D.C Machines
• More Economical
• More Efficient
• Better Insulation
• Efficient Cooling
• More Output
Classification of Synchronous machines

• Depending upon the geometrical structure

of the Rotor
1. Salient pole type
2. Cylindrical rotor type

• Based on input and output power

1. Synchronous generator
2. Synchronous motor
 Comparison between the Salient and
Cylindrical machines
Salient Cylindrical

• Field winding Concentrated Distributed

• Rotor
(i) Diameter Large Small
(ii)Axial length Small Large
• Air gap Non-Uniform Uniform
• Used for Low speed High speed
 Construction details of Synchronous
machines

Generator

Exciter

View of a two-pole round rotor generator

 Construction details of Synchronous
machines
Stator with
laminated iron core B
A
Slots with
phase
C- winding
A+ +
+ +
B+
+
+

N S
Rotor with
-
-

dc winding
B- -
-
-
A-
C+
C

Major components of Cylindrical type Synchronous

machine
Construction details of Synchronous
machines

Cross-section of a large turbo generator

 Construction details of Synchronous
machines

Metal frame

Laminated iron
core with slots

Insulated copper
bars are placed in
the slots to form
the three-phase
winding

Details of a generator stator

 Construction details of Synchronous
machines
Stator with
B+
C- laminated iron core

N
- +
- +
-
A-
+
A+ - +
Rotor with - + Slots with
dc winding S phase
C+ winding
B-

Two-pole salient pole generator

Construction details of Synchronous
machines

B+ A-
C+
C- N
- +
- + B-

+
+
-
-
A+
S
S
A+

+
+

-
-
B- +
+
-
-
N C-
C+
B+
A-

Four-pole salient pole generator.

 Construction details of Synchronous
machines

Slip
rings

Pole

DC excitation
winding
Fan

Rotor of a four-pole salient pole generator.

Speed of rotation of a synchronous generator

 The rate of rotation of the magnetic fields in

the machine is related to the stator electrical
frequency
120 f
Ns 
P
 Typical rotor speeds are 3600 rpm for 2-
pole, 1800 rpm for 4 pole and 450 rpm for 16
poles.
 The Internal Generated voltage of a
Synchronous Generator
 The magnitude of the voltage induced in
a given stator is;
Eb 4.44K b fN

This voltage depends on

• the flux Φ in the machine,
• the frequency or speed of rotation
• The machine construction.
Applications of Synchronous machines
• Synchronous Generators
• A primary source of electrical energy
largest
(energy converter).

• Synchronous Motors
• Used as motors as well as power factor
compensators
(synchronous condensers)
 Synchronous machines
• The armature winding is on stator and e.m.f. is induced
in the winding

• The field winding is on rotor and the field winding is

excited from dc supply

• These two fields interact to produce torque when the

rotor runs at synchronous speed [ ns = (120.f) / P ]

• The stator consists of a stator frame, laminated core

contd..
08/11/25 25
 Contd..
• The core that has slots to hold many turns of armature
winding

• Three-phase winding is placed in the stator slots

• The synchronous machine is classified based on input and

output power
1. Synchronous generator
2. Synchronous motor

• The synchronous machine is classified depending on

design of rotor
1. Salient-pole (or projected-pole) type
2. cylindrical (or non-salient pole) type
08/11/25 contd..
26
 Operating characteristics

08/11/25 Contd..27
 Contd..
• From the circuit model,
Ef = Vt + (j).(Xs).(Ia) ; (generating mode)

Ef = Vt – (j).(Xs).(Ia) ; (motoring mode)

• In generating mode, Ef leads Vt by an angle  because

drop across Xs is supplied by Ef

• In motoring mode, Ef lags Vt by an angle  because

voltage drop across Xs is to be supplied by mains
08/11/25
contd..
28
 Contd..
Generating Mode

08/11/25 Contd..29
 Contd..
Motoring Mode

08/11/25 Contd..
30
 Contd..
• From phasor diagram,
PN = (Ia).(Xs).cos()

• Multiplying above equation by Vt on both sides and

manipulating,
Vt.Ia.cos() = [ Vt.Ef.sin() ] / Xs

• Electrical power delivered to / drawn from mains is

Pe = Vt.Ia.cos() = [ Vt.Ef.sin() ] / Xs
where  = power (or torque) angle by which Ef leads /
lags Vt

contd..
08/11/25 31
 Contd..
• For a synchronous motor,
1. Electrical power is drawn by the motor
2. Mechanical power is delivered by the motor
3. Power angle () is negative (convention)

• For a synchronous generator

1. Mechanical power is drawn by the generator
2. Electrical power is delivered by the generator
3. Power angle () is positive (convention)
contd..

08/11/25 32
 Contd..
• Power angle () is controlled by mechanical
conditions at the shaft

• The machine loses synchronism for values of  > 900

• Under this condition

Electrical power demand > Pe max (generator)
Mechanical power demand > Pm max (motor)

• In synchronous motor loss of synchronism is called

as pull out
contd..
08/11/25 33
 Contd..

• Transient disturbances also cause loss of synchronism

for synchronous machines even  < 900

• Steady state value of  is rarely allowed to exceed 300

contd..

08/11/25 34
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd..
35
 For a synchronous generator
• Terminal voltage for generator supplying load is
Vt = Er = Ef + Ea
where Ea = -(j).Ke..a = -(j).Ke.P.Fa = -(j).Ke.P.Ka.Ia
Ea = -(j)Xa.Ia
Ke = machine e.m.f. constant
P = per pole permeance of machine
Ka = armature winding constant
Xa = Ke.P.Ka = machine constant (inductive reactance
equivalent of armature reaction)
 Vt = Er = Ef – (j).(Xa).(Ia) contd..
08/11/25
36
 Circuit model inclusive of armature
leakage reactance

08/11/25 Contd..37
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd.. 38
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd.. 39
 Contd..
• Armature leakage reactance (Xl) is considered for this
analysis

• The synchronous reactance (per phase) is

Xs = Xa + Xl

• The circuit model is same as in a transformer except

that Ef is controlled by If

• The terminal voltage is

Vt = Ef – (j).(Xs).(Ia) (generating)
Vt = Ef + (j).(Xs).(Ia) (motoring)

contd..
08/11/25 40
 Contd..
• In motoring action, the current Ia flows in to the
machine, in opposition to Ef

• If the machine resistance is taken in to account, the total

impedance is
Zs = [ Ra2 + Xa2 ]1/2 = synchronous impedance

• Armature resistance is as low as 0.01 p.u. and can be

ignored except for efficiency calculations

• Synchronous reactance is of the order of 0.5 - 1.0 p.u.

contd..

08/11/25 41
 Operation at constant load variable
excitation

08/11/25 Contd..
42
 Contd..

• For this type of operation,

Ef.sin() = Pe.Xs / (Vt) = constant and
Ia.cos() = constant

• In motoring mode at unity , the corresponding

excitation is called normal excitation

• An over excited motor draws leading current (acts like

a capacitive load) and power factor is leading

contd..
08/11/25 43
 Contd..
• An under excited motor draws lagging current (acts
like an inductive load) and power factor is lagging

• In an over excited generator the armature current is

lagging terminal voltage and power factor is lagging

• In an under excited generator the armature current is

leading terminal voltage and power factor is leading

contd..

08/11/25 44
 Contd..
• An unloaded synchronous motor is used as a variable
condenser or inductor by varying its excitation

• The variation in armature current of a synchronous

machine for constant real power load but with variable
excitation forms a curve

• This curve is called as V – curve

contd..
08/11/25 45
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd..
46
 Contd..

08/11/25 47
 Phasor Diagrams
For lagging power factor
Vt

δ Ia X s
θ Ef
Ia R a
Ia
Synchronous motor
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Determination of the parameters of the
equivalent circuit

• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous

generator contains three quantities

– The saturation characteristic: relationship

between If and  (and therefore between If and
Ef)
– The synchronous reactance, Xs
– The armature resistance, Ra
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Determination of the parameters of the
equivalent circuit

• The above three quantities can be determined

by performing the following three tests

– Open-circuit test
– Short-circuit test
– DC test

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Open-circuit test

+ A If
Vdc
V

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Open-circuit test

• The generator is turned at the rated speed

• The terminals are disconnected from all loads,
and the field current is set to zero.
• Then the field current is gradually increased in
steps, and the terminal voltage is measured at
each step along the way.
• It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit
characteristic of a generator (Ef or Vt versus If)
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Short circuit test

If
+ A

Vdc
A Ia

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Short circuit test

• Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit

the terminals of the generator through a set of
ammeters.

• Record the armature current Isc as the field current

is increased.

• Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 DC Test

– The purpose is to determine Ra.

– A variable DC voltage source is connected
between two stator terminals.
– The DC source is adjusted to provide
approximately rated stator current, and the
resistance between the two stator leads is
determined from the voltmeter and ammeter
readings
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 DC Test
VDC
 then RDC 
I DC
 If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase
stator resistance is
RDC
Ra 
2
 If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase
stator resistance is
3
Ra  RDC
2

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Determination of Xs

• For a particular field current IfA,

– the internal voltage Ef (=VA) could be found from the OCC
– the short-circuit current flow Isc,A could be found from the SCC.
• Then the synchronous reactance Xs is obtained using

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Determination of Xs

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Determination of Xs
2 2
V A  E f 
Z s ,unsat  R  X
a s ,unsat 
I scA

2 2 Ra is known from the

X s ,unsat  Z s , unsat  R a
DC test.
Since Xs,unsat>>Ra,
Ef Vt , oc
X s ,unsat  
I scA I scA
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
 Objective

• To understand

1. Determination of synchronous reactance

2. Voltage regulation of synchronous generator

3. Synchronizing to mains

08/11/25 60
 Determination of synchronous
reactance

08/11/25
Contd..
61
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd..
62
 Contd..
• The synchronous reactance (Xs) is determined from
open-circuit (O.C.) and short-circuit (S.C) tests

• Under open-circuit (O.C) conditions,

Ia = 0

 Ef = VOC / (3)
where VOC = line-to-line open-circuit voltage

• The open-circuit characteristic (OCC) is a plot of VOC vs If

contd..
08/11/25 63
 Contd..
• Under short-circuit (S.C) conditions,
1. Vt = 0
2. Excitation current (If) is much lower, as expected

• The unsaturated synchronous reactance is

Xs (unsaturated) = [ VOC / (3) ] / ISC If constant
where ISC = short-circuit current

• The SCC is linear when magnetic circuit is unsaturated

08/11/25 64
 Note that
• The value of Xs reduces sharply in saturated region

• Under load conditions the Xs will be less than Xs

compared to that in unsaturated condition

• Thus, Xs varies over region of operation

• Therefore Xs is taken as equal to Xs (adjusted), which is

taken to represent variation of Xs

• The value of Xs (adjusted) is

Xs (adjusted) = [ VOC / (3) ] / ISC If corresponding to
Vt (rated) on OCC
08/11/25 65
 Voltage regulation
• It is the percentage change in terminal voltage of a
synchronous generator at full-load, at a specified power
factor and rated voltage when load is thrown off

• Voltage regulation is
V.R. = [ Vt (no-load)If same as at full-load – Vt (rated) ]
Vt (rated) at
specified load p.f.

• No-load terminal voltage is equal to excitation e.m.f.

i.e., Vt (no-load) = Ef contd..

08/11/25 66
 Contd..
• Generally all line-to-line voltages are considered

• The voltage regulation is positive, zero or negative

depending upon power factor of load

• Voltage regulation is positive for lagging power factor

• Voltage regulation is zero for unity power factor (UPF)

contd..

08/11/25 67
 Contd..

• Voltage regulation is negative for leading power

factor

• The p.u. synchronous machine is far larger (in the

range 0.5 – 0.8 p.u. or even 1.0 p.u.)

08/11/25 68
 Synchronizing to mains

08/11/25 Contd..69
 Contd..
• For synchronizing to mains the following points
should be noted:
1. The machine should run as a generator
2. The terminals should have same phase sequence as
the mains
3. The machine terminal voltage should be equal to that
of the mains
4. The machine frequency should be nearly equal to that
of mains
5. The speed of machine should be equal to synchronous
speed contd..

08/11/25 70
 Contd..

08/11/25 Contd..71
 Contd..
• Before the instant of synchronization is reached, the
rms voltages VL1, VL2 and VL3 respectively across lamps
L1, L2 and L3 oscillate at the difference of frequency

• When two sets of phasors are co-phasal,

VL1 = 0 V and VL2 = VL3

• Therefore
1. Lamp L1 is dark
2. Lamps L2 and L3 are equally bright

• The machine is switched on the mains

contd..
08/11/25 72
 Contd..

• Acceptable phase difference in two phasor sets is about

50
• For larger angular difference the machine would not
synchronize (falls out of step)
• A synchroscope is used for synchronizing the generators
• After synchronization the machine acts as a generator
or motor depending upon the mechanical conditions at
its shaft

08/11/25 73