Chapter 2
Data Communications
Outline
Data transmission
Concepts and Terminology
Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Transmission Impairments
Transmission media
Guided Transmission Media
Wireless Transmission
Digital Transmission in Computer
Network
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital.
For a computer to use the data, it must be in discrete digital form.
Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit
data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.
Data Communication Terminologies
Data means information in digital format and communication means to exchange information
between two or many users in anyways like speaking, texting, or any other modes of the
medium.
So, data communication is simply the exchange of data between two or many users through
the transmission media like twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fibers, radio wave,
satellite microwave, etc.
The user or device that sends the data is the source and the user that receives the data is a
receiver.
For data interchange to take place, the communicating devices must be a part of a system
comprising of a combination of hardware and software.
Its efficiency depends on four fundamental characteristics.
Data communication terminologies:
1. Data Channel :
Channel simply means a path to carry or flow. Data channel means the flow of data or to carry the
data from one device to another.
In other words, we can say the data channel is a computer path or medium used to transfer the data
from sender to receiver.
There are some data channel protocols:
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) – Flow and Congestion Control
DTLS (Datagram Transport Layer Security) – Provides Security
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) / IP (Internet Protocol) – Connectionless communication protocol,
NAT (Network address translational) traversal
Cont..
2. Baud
It’s actually a common measurement unit of data transfer.
Baud rate measures the rate at which the data is transferred from the sender to the
receiver in the data channel.
It can be expressed in terms of bps (bits per second).
It simply determines the speed of data transfer.
3. Bits Per Second (bps) :
Its symbol is “bit/s”. It can be present in two forms i.e. bps (bits per second) and Bps
(Bytes per second).
It’s also a measurement unit of speed at which the data is transferred.
Cont..
4. Bandwidth :
It’s the range of frequencies over which a communication system works.
It generally measures the amount of data that can be transferred in a
given amount of time over a data channel.
It’s the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of a
data channel.
The measurement unit of frequency is cycles per second i.e. hertz.
Cont..
5. DTR (Data Transfer Rates) :
It determines the rate of speed at which the data is transferred from one
point to another.
Its measurement unit is bits per second (bps), Bytes per second (Bps), or
baud.
In computer, data transfer is mainly measured in Bytes per second.
Data transfer between devices such as Hard disk and CD-ROM is usually
measured in milliseconds.
Analog Transmission
Analog transmission conveys voice, data, images, signals, or video information using a
continuously varying signal.
It uses an information signal that varies in amplitude, phase, or another property in proportion
to a specific characteristic of a variable.
Examples of analog modulation methods include Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency
Modulation (FM).
AM alternates the strength of the transmitted signal based on the information being sent, while
FM alternates the frequency of the carrier wave.
Analog transmission can occur through various mediums, including twisted pair or coaxial
cables, fiber optic cables, air, or water.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission involves transferring data over a point-to-point or point-to-
multipoint transmission medium.
Data is represented as an electromagnetic signal (e.g., microwave) or a sequence of pulses
via a line code.
Digital messages are transmitted discretely, using a limited set of waveforms or pulse code
modulation (PCM).
Digital transmission is commonly used for computer data, but it can also digitize analog
signals (e.g., phone calls or video signals) into a bitstream.
Codec equipment is used to encode the data for digital transmission.
Transmission Impairments
Transmission impairments refer to any factors that negatively affect the quality of a signal as it
travels through a communication channel.
These impairments can occur in various types of communication systems, such as wired or
wireless networks. Let’s explore some common transmission impairments:
Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength as it propagates through a medium
(e.g., a coaxial cable or optical fiber).
Factors like cable length, resistance, and interference contribute to attenuation.
To mitigate this, amplifiers or repeaters are used to boost the signal periodically.
Noise: Noise is any unwanted signal that interferes with the original transmission.
It can result from electrical interference, thermal effects, or external sources.
Techniques like error-correcting codes help reduce the impact of noise.
Cont..
Distortion: Distortion occurs when the shape of the transmitted signal changes due to imperfections in
the channel.
Types of distortion include amplitude distortion (signal shape changes), phase distortion (phase shift),
and frequency distortion (changes in frequency components).
Delay: Signal delay is the time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver. Delays can
cause synchronization issues, especially in real-time applications like voice or video calls.
Interference: Interference arises from other signals sharing the same frequency band. Examples
include cross-talk (signals bleeding into adjacent channels) and multipath interference (signal
reflections causing phase shifts).
Jitter: Jitter refers to variations in signal arrival time. It affects the timing accuracy of data packets,
leading to issues in streaming and real-time applications.
Dispersion: Dispersion occurs in optical fibers due to different wavelengths traveling at different
speeds. Chromatic dispersion (wavelength-dependent) and modal dispersion (mode-dependent) can
degrade signal quality.
Transmission Media
There are different types of transmission media used in networking:
Guided Media (Wired Transmission Media):
Guided media refers to transmission channels where signals are directed and confined within a
physical pathway. These media are suitable for relatively shorter distances.
There are three major types of guided media:
Twisted Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cables consist of two separately insulated conductor wires wound around
each other. They are commonly used for various applications.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP cables are the least expensive and easy to install.
They are commonly used in telephone connections and LAN networks.
However, they are susceptible to external interference and have lower capacity
compared to shielded twisted pair (STP).
Cont..
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
STP cables have an additional outer jacket (copper braid or foil shield) to block external
interference.
They offer better performance at higher data rates and eliminate crosstalk.
STP is commonly used in extremely cold climates or for shielding interior components.
Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cables have an outer plastic covering with an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon.
They consist of two parallel conductors, each with a separate insulated protection cover.
Coaxial cables transmit information in two modes: baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth)
and broadband mode (split cable bandwidth into separate ranges).
Widely used for cable TV and analog television networks.
Cont..
Optical Fiber Cable:
Optical fiber cables use the concept of light refraction through a core made of glass or plastic.
They offer high bandwidth, better noise immunity, and are easy to install and expand.
Used for transmitting radio frequency signals, cable television, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer
network connections (like Ethernet), and connecting radio transmitters and receivers to antennas.
Unguided Media (Wireless Transmission Media):
Unguided media refers to wireless channels where signals propagate freely without a physical pathway.
Examples include:
Radio Waves: Used for wireless communication, such as Wi-Fi and cellular networks.
Microwaves: Used for point-to-point communication (e.g., microwave towers).
Infrared Light: Used for short-range communication (e.g., TV remote controls).
Wireless Transmission
Wireless communication is a fascinating field that involves transmitting information without the need for
physical cables or wires. Here are some key points about wireless networks:
Wireless Technologies Overview:
Wireless technologies differ from wired links in several ways, while still sharing common properties.
Similar to wired links, wireless networks face issues related to bit errors, framing, and reliability.
However, power becomes a significant concern in wireless networks due to the use of small mobile
devices (such as phones and sensors) with limited access to power (e.g., small batteries).
Regulatory restrictions also limit the power emitted by radio transmitters to avoid interference with
other devices.
Wireless media are inherently multi-access, making media access control a central issue.
Eavesdropping is another challenge because it’s hard to control who receives signals transmitted over
the air.
There’s a wide variety of wireless technologies, each with different trade-offs in terms of data rates,
range, spectrum usage, and power consumption.
Prominent Wireless Technologies
Wi-Fi (802.11):
Wi-Fi is a widely used wireless technology for local area networks (LANs).
It provides data rates ranging from 150 to 450 Mbps, with a typical link length of around
100 meters.
Wi-Fi allows computers to connect wirelessly to a wired base station (such as a router).
Analogous to wired Ethernet, Wi-Fi serves as a wireless alternative.
Bluetooth (802.15.1):
Bluetooth is commonly used for short-range communication (up to 10 meters).
It provides a shared data rate of 2 Mbps.
Bluetooth is often used to link peripherals (e.g., keyboards, mice) to computers or mobile
phones.
Think of it as the wireless equivalent of USB connections.
Cont..
4G Cellular Networks:
Cellular networks (like 4G) provide wide-area coverage.
They offer data rates of 1-5 Mbps and can cover tens of kilometers.
Cellular networks connect mobile phones to wired base stations (towers).
Analogous to passive optical networks (PONs) in wired technology.
Sharing the Wireless Medium:
Because wireless links share the same medium (the air), efficient sharing is crucial.
Sharing is achieved by dividing the medium along dimensions of frequency and space.
Frequency division allows multiple devices to transmit at different frequencies without
interfering with each other.
Space division ensures that nearby devices don’t interfere with one another.
