ROHINI College of Engineering and Technology
(AUTONOMOUS)
Affiliated to Anna University Chennai, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited By NAAC with A+ Grade
Kanyakumari Main Road,, Palkulam, Anjugramam, Tamil Nadu 629401
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
(Open Elective – IV)
AU3008 Sensors and Actuators
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENTS
AND SENSORS 1.4 Classification of errors
- Error analysis
R.Padma Kumar,
Professor, Department of EEE
ROHINI College of Engineering & Technology
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Errors in measurement are unavoidable discrepancies between
the measured value and the true value of a quantity.
These errors can significantly affect the accuracy and reliability
of experimental results.
The deviation of the measured quantity from the actual quantity or true value is
called error.
E = Am – At
where E is the error, Am is the measured quantity and At is the true value.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Classification of Errors
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Gross Errors
Human oversight and other mistakes while reading, recording, and readings.
For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of the instrument
may read 23 as 28
Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the
calculation of error should be done accurately.
By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Blunders:
A blunder is a significant, unpredictable
mistake that is usually caused by
carelessness, ignorance, or stupidity.
Blunders can also be the result of
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor
judgment.
Blunders are simply a clear mistake that
causes an error in the experiment
Example: such as dropping a beaker with the
solution before measuring the final mass
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Instrumental Error
Environmental Error
Systematic Errors
Observational Error
Systematic errors are Theoretical Error
errors that have a
Environmental Error
clear cause and can
Random Errors
be eliminated for
Observational Error
future experiments.
Random errors occur
randomly, and sometimes
have no source/cause.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Instrumental Error Happen when an instrument gives the wrong reading.
Most often, you can fix instrumental errors by
recalibrating the instrument.
1. Due to inherent shortcoming in the instrument.
Example:- If the spring used in permanent magnet instrument has become
weak then instrument will always read high. Errors may caused
because of friction , hysteresis , or even gear backlash.
2. Due to misuse of the instruments.
For example, these may be caused by failure to adjust zero of the
instruments.
3. Due to Loading effects of instruments.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Systematic Errors Environmental Error
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of
external magnetic or electrostatic field.
These errors can be eliminated or reduced by using corrective measure
such as:
Keep the condition as constant as possible.
Use instrument/equipment which is immune to these effects.
Employ technique which eliminates these disturbances.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Systematic Errors Observational Error
As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale.
Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of vision of the
observer is exactly above the pointer.
To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales,
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Systematic Errors Observational Error
Since the parallax errors arise on account of pointer and the scale not being in the
same plane, we can eliminate this error by having the pointer and the scale in the
same plane.
No two persons observe the same situation
in exactly the same way where small details
are concerned,
Example: sound and light measurements
Arrangement showing
scale and pointer in the
same plane
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Systematic Errors Theoretical Error
This type of error arises when the assumptions or simplifications made in a theoretical
model do not perfectly reflect the real-world situation.
Causes of Theoretical Error:
Simplifying Assumptions
Incomplete Theories
Numerical Approximations
Incorrect Parameters
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Random Errors Environmental Error
Changes in temperature, humidity, or other factors can
affect the accuracy of measurements.
Observational Error
Small mistakes made by observers, such as misreading
instruments or recording data incorrectly.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Error analysis
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
The experimental data is obtained ie. two forms of tests :
(i) Multisample test and
(ii) Single-sample test.
Multisample Test:
In this test, repeated measurement of a given quantity are done using different
test conditions such as employing different instruments, different ways of
measurement and by employing different observers.
Single Sample Test:
A single measurement (or succession of measurements) done under identical
conditions excepting for time is known as single-sample test.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
1. Histogram
When a number of multisample observations are taken experimentally
there is a scatter of the data about some central value. One method
presenting test results in the form of a Histogram.
Example Make a Histogram from a Frequency Table:
Suppose we collect the following data that shows the exam scores of 20 students in
some class:
Scores: 50, 58, 62, 65, 70, 71, 72, 74, 74, 78, 81, 82, 82, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 96
We can create the following frequency table using a bin range of 10 to summarize the
frequency of each range of scores:
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Histogram
The x-axis of the histogram displays bins of data values and the y-axis tells us how
many observations in a dataset fall in each bin.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
2. Arithmetic Mean:
The most probable value of measured variable (variate) is the arithmetic mean of
the number of readings taken.
The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the same
quantity are very large.
Theoretically, an infinite number of readings would give the best result, although
in practice, only a finite number of measurements can be made.
The arithmetic mean is given by,
- arithmetic mean
= = x1, x2 ... Xn - readings or variates or samples
N - number of readings
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
3. Measure of Dispersion from the Mean
The property which denotes the
extent to which the values are
dispersed about the central value is
termed as dispersion. The other
names used for dispersion are
spread of scatter.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
4. Range
The simplest possible measure of dispersion is
the range which is the difference between
greatest and least values of data.
For example in Figure,
the range of curve 1 is (x2- x1) and
that of curve 2 is (X4 –X3).
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
5. Deviation
Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings.
Let the deviation of reading be and that of reading be , etc.
Algebraic sum of the deviation = d1 + d2 + d3 + ……dn
Therefore the algebraic, sum of deviations is zero.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
6. Average Deviation
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of
the instruments used in making the measurements. Highly
precise instruments yield a low average deviation between
readings.
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations
divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of deviation is the value
without respect to its sign.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
7. Standard Deviation
A standard deviation (or σ) is a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation
to the mean.
Defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared, divided
by the number of readings.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
8. Variance
The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as S.D.,
except that square root is not extracted.
2
V =( Standard Deviation )
But when the number of observations is less than 20,
Variance
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
9. Normal Distribution
What Is a Normal Distribution?
Normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution, is a probability
distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean are
more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean.
The normal distribution appears as a "bell curve" when graphed.
Normal or Gaussian Probability Curve
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Normal Distribution
Using 1 standard deviation, the Empirical Rule states that,
Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean. (i.e.,
Between Mean- one Standard Deviation and Mean + one standard deviation)
Approximately 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations of the mean. (i.e.,
Between Mean- two Standard Deviation and Mean + two standard deviations)
Approximately 99.7% of the data fall within three standard deviations of the mean.
(i.e., Between Mean- three Standard Deviation and Mean + three standard deviations)
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
9. Probable Error:
Probable error is a statistical term that describes the half-range of an interval
around a central point in a distribution
What is special about the value of PE? The PE defines the
middle 50% of the normal distribution as shown in Figure
5.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Problem 1:
A set of independent current measurements were taken by six observers and
were recorded as 12.8 A, 12.2 A, 12.5 A, 13.1 A. 12.9 A, and 12.4 A. Calculate
(a) the arithmetic mean,
(b) the deviations from the mean,
(c) the average deviation,
(d) the· standard deviation, and
(e) variance.
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
Answer to Problem 1
(a). Arithmetic Mean = 12. 65 A.
(b). The deviations from the mean = d1 =x1-X=12·8-12·65 =+0·15 A
D2 =x2-X=l2.2-12.65 = -0.45 A
d3=x3-X=12.5-12.65= -0.15 A
d4=X4-X=13.1-12.65 =. +0·45 A
d5=x5-X=12.9-12.65= +0·25 A
d6=X6-X=12.4 -12.65= -0.25 A
(c) the average deviation D =0. 283 A
(d) the· standard deviation s = =0.399 A.
(e) Variance = -0·115 .
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
THANK YOU
Dr.Jackson Daniel, Prof./ECE/ VII Sem./AU3008 Sensors and Actuators/2024-25
