The Respiratory System

MR MWAKASHITA
BSC NUR
 INTRODUCTION

The cells of the body need energy for the chemical activity that
maintains homeostasis. Most of this energy is derived from
chemical reactions that can only take place in the presence of
oxygen (O2). The main waste product of these reactions is
carbon dioxide (CO2). The respiratory system provides the route
by which the supply of oxygen present in the atmospheric air
gains entry into the body and it provides the route of excretion
for carbon dioxide.
 The organs of the respiratory
system are:
 The nose
 The pharynx
 The larynx
 The trachea
 Two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
 The bronchioles and smaller air passages
 Twolungs and their coverings, the pleura, muscles of
respiration — the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
 Definition of respiration

 Respiration
is the entire process by which gases are
exchanged between the atmosphere and the body cells
 Respiration is the process by which the body takes in and
utilizes oxygen (O2) and gets rid of carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Respiratory System
Functions
1. supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of
carbon dioxide
2. Filters inspired air
3. Produces sound (phonation)
4. Contains receptors for smell (Olfaction)
 Cont…

5. Rids the body of some excess water and heat

(excretory)
6. Helps regulate blood Ph (homeostasis)
7. Immunological function (PAM)
8. Metabolism (synthesis of surfactant, prostaglandins.)
 Respiratory System
 Anatomically the system is divided into:-
 Upper respiratory system
 Lower respiratory system

 Functionally it is divided into :-

 Conducting portion
 Respiratory system
 Organization and Functions of
the Respiratory System
 Consistsof an upper respiratory tract (nose to larynx) and a
lower respiratory tract ( trachea onwards) .
 Conducting portion transports air - includes the nose, nasal
cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and progressively smaller
airways, from the primary bronchi to the terminal bronchioles
 Respiratory portion carries out gas exchange - composed of
small airways called respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts
as well as air sacs called alveoli
 Respiratory mucosa
 A layer of pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelial
cells that secrete mucus
 Found in nose, sinuses,
pharynx, larynx and trachea
 Mucus can trap contaminants
Ciliamove mucus up
towards mouth
 Respiratory Epithelia Cells

 Ciliated columnar cells

 Goblet cells
 Brush cells
 Small
granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) →diffuse
neuroendocrine system
 Basal cells →stem cells
 Olfactory Epithelia
 Olfactoryneuron:-
bipolar neurons
 Supporting cells
 Basal cells: stem cells
 The Nose and the Nasal
Cavity
Position and structure
 Thenasal cavity is the first of the respiratory organs
and consists of a large irregular cavity divided into two
equal passages by a septum.
 Theposterior bony part of the septum is formed by
the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the
vomer. Anteriorly it consists of hyaline cartilage.
 NOSE
 Rich supply of capillaries warm the inspired air
 olfactory
mucosa – mucous membranes that contain smell
receptors
 respiratorymucosa – pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium containing goblet cells that secrete mucus which
traps inhaled particles,
 lysozyme kills bacteria
 IgA antibodies that protect against bacteria
 Nose
a. Provides an airway fo
respiration
b. Moistens and warms entering
air
c. Filters and cleans inspired air
d. Resonating chamber for
speech
e. Detects odors in the air stream
 Paranasal Sinuses
 Four
bones of the skull contain paired air spaces called the
paranasal sinuses - frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary
 Decrease skull bone weight
 Warm, moisten and filter incoming air
 Add resonance to voice.
 Communicate with the nasal cavity by ducts.
 Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
 The Pharynx
Position
 The pharynx is a tube 12 to 14 cm long that extends
from the base of the skull to the level of the 6th
cervical vertebra.
 Itlies behind the nose, mouth and larynx and is wider
at its upper end.
For descriptive purposes the
pharynx is divided into three
parts:
A. Nasopharynx,

B. Oropharynx and

C. Laryngopharynx.
 Pharynx
 Common space used by both the respiratory and
digestive systems.
 Commonly called the throat.
 Originatesposterior to the nasal and oral cavities and
extends inferiorly near the level of the bifurcation of
the larynx and esophagus.
 Common pathway for both air and food.
 Pharynx
 Walls
are lined by a mucosa and contain skeletal
muscles that are primarily used for swallowing.
 Flexible
lateral walls are distensible in order to force
swallowed food into the esophagus.
 Nasopharynx
 Superior-most
region of the pharynx. Covered with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
 Located directly posterior to the nasal cavity and
superior to the soft palate, which separates the oral
cavity.
 Normally, only air passes through.
 Cont…

 Material from the oral cavity and oropharynx is typically

blocked from entering the nasopharynx by the uvula of soft
palate, which elevates when we swallow.
 In the lateral walls of the nasopharynx, paired
auditory/eustachian tubes connect the nasopharynx to the
middle ear.
 Posterior nasopharynx wall also houses a single pharyngeal
tonsil (commonly called the adenoids).
 Oropharynx

 The middle pharyngeal region.

 Immediately posterior to the oral cavity.
 Bounded by the edge of the soft palate superiorly and
the hyoid bone inferiorly.
 Cont…

 Common respiratory and digestive pathway through which

both air and swallowed food and drink pass.
 Contains nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Lymphatic organs here provide the first line of defense
against ingested or inhaled foreign materials.
 Palatine tonsils are on the lateral wall between the arches,
and the lingual tonsils are at the base of the tongue.
 Laryngopharynx
 Inferior, narrowed region of the pharynx.
 Extendsinferiorly from the hyoid bone to the larynx and
esophagus.
 Terminates at the superior border of the esophagus and the
epiglottis of the larynx.
 Lined with a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Permits passage of both food and air.
 Functions of the
Pharynx
i. Passageway for air and food
ii. Warming and humidifying
iii. Taste
iv. Hearing
v. Protection
vi. Speech
 The Larynx
Position of the Larynx
 The larynx or 'voice box' extends from the root of the
tongue and the hyoid bone to the trachea.
 Itlies in front of the laryngopharynx at the level of the
3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae.
 Cont…

 Until
puberty there is little difference in the size of the
larynx between the sexes.
 Thereafterit grows larger in the male, which explains
the prominence of the 'Adam's apple‘ and the
generally deeper voice.
 Larynx

 Nine cartilages form the framework of the larynx

1. Thyroid cartilage – (1) Adam’s apple, hyaline, anterior

attachment of vocal folds, testosterone increases size
after puberty

2. Cricoid cartilage – (1) ring-shaped, hyaline

 Cont…

3. Arytenoid cartilages – (2) hyaline, posterior

attachment of vocal folds, hyaline

4. Cuneiform cartilages - (2) hyaline

5. Corniculate cartlages - (2) hyaline

6. Epiglottis – (1) elastic cartilage

 Larynx
 Muscular walls aid in voice production
and the swallowing reflex
 Glottis – the superior opening of the
larynx
 Epiglottis – prevents food and drink
from entering airway when swallowing
 pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
 Sound
 Inferior ligaments are called the
vocal folds - are true vocal cords Production
because they produce sound when
air passes between them
 Superior ligaments are called the
vestibular folds - are false vocal
cords because they have no
function in sound production, but
protect the vocal folds.
 The tension, length, and position of
the vocal folds determine the quality
of the sound.
 Sound
 Loudness – depends on the force Production
with which air is exhaled through
the cords
 Pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity,
paranasal sinuses act as
resonating chambers that add
quality to the sound
 Muscles of the face, tongue, and
lips help with enunciation of
words
 Functions of the interior
larynx
i. Speech
ii. Protection of the lower
respiratory tract
iii. Passageway for air
iv. Humidifying, filtering and
warming air
 Cont…

Production of sound: Sound has the properties of pitch, volume

and resonance.
 Pitch of the voice depends upon the length and tightness of
the cords.
 Volume of the voice depends upon the force with which the
cords vibrate.
 Resonance, or tone, is dependent upon the shape of the
mouth, the position of the tongue and the lips, the facial
muscles and the air in the paranasal sinuses.
 The Trachea
 Position
 The trachea or windpipe is a continuation of the larynx
and extends downwards to about the level of the 5th
thoracic vertebra where it divides (bifurcates) at the
carina into the right and left bronchi with one
bronchus going to each lung.
 Itis approximately 10 to 11 cm long and lies mainly in
the median plane in front of the oesophagus
 Structure of the
Trachea
 The trachea is composed of about 16 to 20
incomplete (C-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilages lying
one above the other.
 The cartilages are incomplete posteriorly.
 Connective tissue and involuntary muscle join the
cartilages and form the posterior wall where they are
incomplete.
 Thesoft tissue posterior wall is in contact with the
oesophagus.
 Trachea
 Atthe level of the sternal angle, the trachea bifurcates
into two smaller tubes, called the right and left
primary bronchi.
 Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward each
lung.
 The most inferior tracheal cartilage separates the
primary bronchi at their origin and forms an internal
ridge called the carina.
 Functions of the Trachea

1. Support and patency

2. Mucociliary escalator.
3. Cough reflex
4. Warming, humidifying and filtering of air
 Bronchial tree
A highly branched system of air-conducting passages
that originate from the left and right primary bronchi.
 Progressivelybranch into narrower tubes as they
diverge throughout the lungs before terminating in
terminal bronchioles.
 Incompleterings of hyaline cartilage support the walls
of the primary bronchi to ensure that they remain
open.
 Cont…

 Rightprimary bronchus is shorter, wider, and more

vertically oriented than the left primary bronchus.
 Foreign
particles are more likely to lodge in the right
primary bronchus.
 Bronchial tree
 The primary bronchi enter the hilus of each lung
together with the pulmonary vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves.
 Each primary bronchus branches into several
secondary bronchi (or lobar bronchi).
 The left lung has two secondary bronchi. The right lung
has three secondary bronchi.
 Cont…

 They further divide into tertiary bronchi.

 Eachtertiary bronchus is called a segmental bronchus
because it supplies a part of the lung called a
bronchopulmonary segment.
Respiratory Zone of
Lower Respiratory
Tract
Cont…
 Conduction vs.
Respiratory zones
 Most of the tubing in the lungs makes up
conduction zone
Consists of nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles
 The respiratory zone is where gas is exchanged
Consists of alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts
and respiratory bronchioles
 Bronchioles
 Simple columnar or cuboidal & ciliated epithelium
•No goblet cells
•Smooth muscle (relatively abundant)
•Clara cells
Functions of Clara cells
 Secretion of surfactant
 Detoxification
 Secretion of antimicrobial pepetides
 Stem cells
 Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar
Ducts, and Alveoli

 Lungs contain small saccular outpocketings called

alveoli.
 Theyhave a thin wall specialized to promote diffusion
of gases between the alveolus and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries.
 Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar
Ducts, and Alveoli
 Gas exchange can take place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts as well as in the
alveoli, each lung contains approximately 300 to 400
million alveoli.
 The spongy nature of the lung is due to the packing of
millions of alveoli together.
 Cells in Alveolus

Type I alveolar cells (type I pneumocytes) : simple

squamous cells forming lining,
 blood-air barrier
Type II cells (type II pneumocytes): or septal cells
secrete surfactant
(diapalmitoylphophatidylcholine)
 Provide progenitor cells for type I cells
Alveolar macrophages:- dust cells
 THE LUNGS
 Thearea between the lungs is the mediastinum. It is
occupied by the heart, great vessels,
 trachea,right and left bronchi, oesophagus, lymph
nodes, lymph vessels and nerves.
 Breathing
1. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air that
surrounds the earth.

2. Intra-alveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure is the air

pressure within the lungs.

3. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the pleural

cavity.
 Breathing

Breathing (pulmonary ventilation). consists of two cyclic

phases:

1. inhalation, also called inspiration - draws gases into

the lungs.

2. exhalation, also called expiration - forces gases out

of the lungs.
 Muscles of respiration
(a) Inspiratory muscles:
 Diaphragm
 External intercostal muscles
 Scalenius, sternocleidomastoid, anterior serrati also
help to lift the ribs during inspiration
 Thediaphragm and external intercostal muscles are
the main inspiratory muscles
 Muscles of respiration
(b)Expiratory muscles
 Expiration is mainly passive process
 Muscles only get involved in forced expiration and
include:
 Abdominal muscles i.e abdominal recti and the
internal intercostal muscles
Inspiration Vs Expiration
Physical properties of the
lungs
(1)Surface tension = pressure resulting from thin film of water
lining alveoli that resists their expansion.
 The low surface tension when the alveoli are small is due to
the presence in the fluid lining the alveoli of surfactant (lipid
surface-tension-lowering agent) produced by type II
Pneumocytes (Septal cells/clara cells)
 If the surface tension is not kept low when the alveoli
become smaller during expiration, they collapse
 Physical properties of the
lungs
(2)Compliance = The change in lung volume per unit change in
airway pressure (ΔV/ΔP) is the compliance (stretch ability) of
the lungs and chest wall.
 More lung compliance = greater capacity for “stretchiness”
 Less lung compliance = less capacity for “stretchiness”
(3) Elasticity/Recoil = tendency of lungs to return to normal
shape after either inflating (inhalation) or deflating (exhaling)
 Lung (respiratory)volumes
and Capacities
a) Respiratory volumes are the amount of air inhaled,
exhaled or stored within the lung at any given time
b) Size of the lungs and therefore the lung volumes
depend upon an individual’s height, weight or body
surface area, age, and gender
 Lung volumes and capacities

i. A simple method for studying pulmonary ventilation

is to record the volume movement of air into and
out of the lungs (spirometry).
ii. Spirometer consists of a drum inverted over a
chamber of water, with the drum counterbalanced
by a weight
iii. In the drum is a breathing gas, usually air or oxygen
Spirometer
 Standard lung volumes
The four Standard lung volumes;
Tidal volume(TV)
Residual volume(RV)
Expiratory reserve volume(ERV)
Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV)
 Standard lung volumes

1)Tidal volume (TV): Amount of air inhaled or

exhaled in one breath during relaxed/quite
breathing
TV is about 500 ml per breath.
This volume increases significantly during
exercise
 Standard lung volumes
2)Residual volume (RV): Amount of air remaining
in the lungs after maximum expiration,
Its about 1200ml
It keeps alveoli inflated between breaths and
mixes with fresh air on next inspiration
Cannot be measured by spirometry
 Standard lung volumes

3) Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV): Amount of air

in excess of tidal inspiration that can be inhaled
with maximum effort
Determined by the strength of contraction of the
inspiratory muscles and the inward elastic recoil
of the lungs.
It is about 3000ml
 Standard lung volumes
4) Expiratory reserve volume(ERV): Amount of air
in excess of tidal expiration that can be exhaled
with maximum effort
It is about 1200mls
 Standard Lung capacities

Standard lung capacities consist of two or more

lung volumes in combination and include:
 Vital capacity(VC)
 Inspiratory capacity(IC)
 Functional residual capacity(FRC)
 Total lung capacity(TLC)
 Standard lung capacities

1)Vital capacity(VC):
 Amount of air that can be exhaled with maximum
effort after maximum inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV)
 Used to assess strength of thoracic muscles as well as
pulmonary function
 Its about 4700ml
 Standard lung capacities

2)Inspiratory capacity(IC): Maximum amount of air that

can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration (TV +
IRV)
 Its about 3500mls
3)Functional residual capacity(FRC): Amount of air
remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration
(RV + ERV)
 Its about 2400ml
 Standard lung capacities
4) Total lung capacity(TLC): Maximum amount of air
the lungs can contain (RV + VC)
 About 5900ml
 Includesresidual volume so it can not be measured
by spirometry
 Application of lung volumes

The forced vital capacity (FVC) is frequently

measured clinically as an index of pulmonary
function
It gives useful information about the strength of
the respiratory muscles and other aspects of
pulmonary function