HARAPPAN / INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

World History witnessed – Civilisations :-

Mesopotamia – river Euphrates
Egypt – river Nile
China – river Hwang Ho/Yellow river
India – river Indus
 Different Names

• Indus Valley Civilisation – known as- civilisation develop around Indus

river
• Harappan Civilisation – known as- first excavation site discovered
• Bronze Civilisation – known as- use of bronze for making utensils,tools
and statues
• Pre - Aryan Civilisation – known as- this civilisation had flourished before
Aryans arrival in India
•
 Discovery of Indus valley civilisation

• 1921 – Dr. Dayaram Sahini – excavated Harappa – Montgomery District

of Punjab – remains of big baked bricks and seals – 100 miles from Lahore
– northern capital
• 1922 – R. D. Banerjee – excavated buddhist stupa at Mohenjodaro (mound
of the dead) in Larkana district of Sindh – found remains of bricks of an
unknown type ,seals and other articles - 400 miles from Lahore - southern
capital
 Archeologists

• Sir John Marshall – Director General of Archeological Survey

• Sir Mortimer Wheeler
• Mackay
• M.N.Vatsa
• B.B.Lal
• M.R.Rao
 Extent of Indus Valley Civilisation

• Extent of Harappan civilisation – from Indus river to Ghaggar-Hakra to

Ganges-Yamuna Doab encompassing most of Pakistan now to westewrn
most states of modern India to south-eastern Aafghanistan
• Extension is marked by Sutkagendor in west(on Pakistan –Iran
border);Manda in Jammu in north;Alamgirpur(Uttar Pradesh,India)in
east;Kachchh in Gujrat in South
 Main centres and Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

• It covered area – greater than jointly covered by Egypt and Mesopotamia

• Its spread – over to Sindh Province,Baluchistan,N.W.Frontier Province,
Jammu and Kashmir ,Punjab, Saurashtra, Rajasthan,
Maharashatra,Uttar Pradesh, to north of Gangetic valley
• Main centres – Harappa, Mohenjodaro,Chanhudaro, Amri and Kot Diji
(Sindh province);Sutkagendor and Debarkot(Baluchistan);Gulma in
N.W.F.Province, Kotla Nihang Khan, Sarangpur, Sanghol(Punjab);
Chandigarh, Mitathal, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Daulatpur, Mirzapur,
Bhagwanpura(Haryana);Daimabad(Maharashtra);Kalibanga(Rajasthan),Ra
ngpur, Lothal ,Dholavira(Gujrat) and Alamgirpur(U.P.)
 Phases of Harappan civilisation

• Early Harappan phase – 3200BCE-2600BCE – marked by some town

planning – in form of mud structure,elementary trade,arts and crafts
• Mature Harappan Phase – 200BCE-1900BCE – period notice well
developed towns with burnt brick structures,inland and foreign trade,crafts
of various types
• Late Harappan phase – 1900BCE-1400BCE – decline phase – many cities
abandoned and trade disappeared – gradual decay
 Races of Harappan civilisation

• Discovery shows – people of Harappan civilisation – were Proto –

Austroloid, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Alopine
 Urban Planning

• A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the

Indus Valley Civilisation, making them the first urban centre in the region.
The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of
urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high
priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious
ritual.
• As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated
Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first known urban sanitation
systems: see hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Within
the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells.
From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was
directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only
to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in
the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the
Harappans
 Advanced Architecture

• The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed
and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than
any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more
efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The
advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive
dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls.
The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from
floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts
 Egalitarianism prevalent somewhere

• Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilisation cities
were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the
houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the
impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though
clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments
 Central Administration

• Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of

power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there
are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For
instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform
and well-planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central
authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in
pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of public facilities and
monumental architecture; heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in
grave goods (items included in burials)
 Measurement

• The people of the Indus Civilisation achieved great accuracy in measuring

length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of
uniform weights and measures.[] A comparison of available objects
indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest
division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was
approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of
the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of
measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass
as revealed by their hexahedron
• Cubical weights were most common. The unit weight had the value of
8750 grams the largest weight being 10.970 grams. A bronze bar with
suspended copper pans was used as a scale. All these weights prove that
the decimal system was known to the people of the Indus Valley.
 Sculpture

• Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and

anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been
found at excavation sites.[123] The Harappans also made various toys and
games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces),
which were found in sites like Mohenjo-daro
 Crafts

• Many crafts including, "shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead
making" were practised and the pieces were used in the making of necklaces,
bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan culture. Some of these
crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. [Some make-up and toiletry items
(a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one
toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts
in modern India.[ Terracotta female figurines were found (c. 2800–2600 BCE)
which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair). A
number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the
presence of some dance form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears,
monkeys, and dogs. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for
constructing seals, beads and other objects.
• Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads.
 Seals

• Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its

head, and another, on the Pashupati seal, sitting cross-legged in what some[
who?]
call a yoga-like pose. The figure has been variously identified. Sir
John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.
• A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects
found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments.
• A human deity with the horns, hooves and tail of a bull also appears in the
seals, in particular in a fighting scene with a horned tiger-like beast.
• Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods).
• Types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered
writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Some of the seals were
used to stamp clay on trade goods
 Transport

• The Indus civilisation's economy appears to have depended significantly

on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology.
The IVC may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. [136]
These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those
seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats
were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to
those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary
evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive,
dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city
of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network,
used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort
 Indus characters.

• Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols[164] have been
found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other
materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate
of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical
Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most
of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on a
single surface, which is less than 2.5 cm (1 in) square, is 17 signs long; the
longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced
object) has a length of 26 symbols.
• While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate
society on the evidence of these inscriptions
 Weapons

• It is generally accepted that the Indus Valley people were peace loving. In
fact no deadly weapons or defensive weapons like shield or armor have
discovered during excavation. On the contrary weapons like axe, spear,
bows and arrows etc. discovered give indication that the people were
disinterested in warfare. However the weapons so discovered prove that
the people of the age knew the use of copper, bronze. Incidentally they
used to use a type of sharp pointed and thick sword to protect themselves
from external attack.
 Buildings

• People of Indus valley civilization built houses and other buildings

by the side of roads. They built terraced houses of burnt bricks.
Every house had two or more rooms. There were also more than one
storied houses. The houses were designed around an inner courtyard
and contained pillared halls, bath rooms, paved floors, kitchen, well
etc. Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures have also been
found. One of these buildings has got the biggest hall measuring 80
ft long and 80 ft wide. It might have been a palace, or temple or hall
for holding meetings. The workmen quarters are also found. There
was an excellent system of water supply. There were public wells by
the side of streets. Every big house had its own well. They also built
a dockyard at Lothal.
 Great Bath

The most striking feature in Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It consists of a

large quadrangle. In the centre, there is a huge swimming pool
(approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8ft deep) with the remains of
galleries and rooms on all four sides. It has a flight of steps at either end
and is fed by a well, situated in one of the adjoining rooms. The water was
discharged by a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth.
The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. This solid construction has
successfully withstood the natural ravages for 5000 years. There were
arrangements for hot water bath in some rooms.
Great Bath
 Granary

• The largest building in Mohenjodaro is granary which is 45.71 mtrs long

and 15.23 mtrs wide. In Harappa there are a series of brick platforms
which formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each. In the Southern
part of Kalibangan brick platforms have also been found. These granaries
safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue or store
houses to be used in emergencies.
 Settlement Pattern

• Town-planning was the prime specialty of the Harappan culture. Each

town was divided into two main parts. On higher ground was built the fort
that housed the ruling class and the priestly class. From the foot of the
fort area was spread the human settlements of other classes. People of
many communities lived there. The town was encircled by a high wall
made of burnt bricks. The intention was probably to ward off invaders. The
town planning of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan was styled as
per this pattern.
 Citadel

• To the west of each was a ‘citadel’ mound built on a high podium of mud-
brick and to the east was the town proper the main hub of the residential
area. The citadel and the town was further surrounded by a massive brick
wall. In fact careful planning of the town, fine drainage system, well
arranged water supply system prove that all possible steps were carefully
adopted to make the town ideal and comfortable for the citizenry.
 Drainage

• The drainage system was the principal attraction of the Indus civilization.
The people put a lot of emphasis on hygiene. They took particular steps to
drain out the waste water and refuges out of the town. Big drains were
dug on either side of the roads and burnt- bricks were used in making
these drains. The drains were covered, not exposed. These drains passed
through the town to the outskirts where they terminated in a big well.
• The small drains of each house were connected to the big drain across the
front of the house. Thus the waste-water and refuges of each house were
drained out finally to the big well outside the town. The system helped to
prevent foul smell and pollution. Seldom is seen such modem method of
drainage in any other ancient civilization.
 Streets

• The street lights system, watch and ward arrangement at night to outwit the law
breakers, specific places to throw rubbish and waste materials, public wells in every
street, well in every house etc. revealed the high sense of engineering and town
planning of the people. The main streets some as wide as 30 to 34 feet were laid
out with great skill dividing the cities into blocks within which were networks of
narrow lanes.
• The streets were quite broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet in breadth. The corners
of the street rounded off perhaps to enable the heavy carts to take turn easily. The
streets intersected in right angles and so arranged that the prevailing winds could
work as a sort of suction pump and thereby clean the atmosphere automatically.
No building was allowed to be constructed arbitrarily and encroaching upon a
public highway. The owners of the pottery kilns were not allowed to build the
furnaces within the town obviously to save the town from air pollution.
• A tourist from England was highly enchanted seeing the idea of advanced and
skillful town planning and remarked that the town was very much equivalent to the
working of present day Lancashire.
 Roads

• Roads were very wide in Harappan townships, crisscrossing the town from
east to west and north to south. Each crossing was vertical, with provision
of light-post on the crossing. The houses were built on either side of the
roads. The drains were connected to the main drain that stretched to the
farthest extent of the town. Commenting on the Harappan roads, E.J.H.
Mackay appreciated the fact that the straight wide roads with vertical
crossings acted as ventilators for the town and kept the town free of
pollution thereby.
 Pottery

• The potteries are generally regarded as the earliest example of its kind in
the ancient world. The clay pots were also polished and glazed to give
shine like those of the present days. The people of the Indus Valley were
very fond of paintings. Their patronage for paintings transpires in the
figures of human beings, animals and other objects of nature. These quality
paintings of the painters really surpass all records.
 Art of craving

• The excavation of Mahenjo-daro and Harappa throws a flood of light that

the people of Indus valley did not lag behind in the field of engraving of
animals on many seals that came to our hand. The engravings were simple
but elegant and the variety is also a matter of surprise. The engraving of
bulls, rhinoceros elephants, deer’s etc. on the seals speaks about their skill
in this field.
• The carving of a humped bull is a unique specimen and it symbolizes the
realism and simplicity in the process of the engraving. The figures are
generally engraved on ivory, soap stone, leather, metal and wood. All
these exhibits unmistakably prove that the art of engraving achieved a
success during the Indus valley civilization.
 Art of Writing

• The Indus valley people were also well versed in the art of writing. The
script followed was pictographic. Though in the seals scripts are plentifully
available but in-spite of pain staking endeavor the scholars are not
successful in deciphering the scripts for which many important
information’s still remain under darkness.
 Social life

• Society :-
• It appears that the people were divided into four classes—the learned class,
warriors, traders and artisans, and manual labourers or working class. The
learned class included priests, physicians, astrologers. The existence of
palaces with ancient foundations, of swords of watchmen’s quarters and of
ancient fort walls points to the second class whose duty was to protect the
people.
• Probably this class was similar to khatriyas. A commercial class and
various artisans such as the mason, engraver, shell worker, gold smith,
weaver, carpenter etc. formed the third class. Domestic servants and
manual labourers like leather workers, fishermen, basket makers, peasants,
daily wage earners formed the last class. All this corresponds roughly to
the four Varna’s of the Vedic age.
 Food

• The people were taking beef, mutton, pork, poultry, turtles and tortoises
as their main food. Wheat was their main article of food. Barley and palm-
date were also familiar. Fish was commonly used and vegetables and fruits
seem to have been known though there is no positive evidence.
 Dress

• Cotton fabrics were in common use but wool was also used. Their dress
was simple. Men used shawls which were drawn over the left shoulder
and under the right arm so as to leave the right arm free. It formed the
upper garment. The lower garment was like a modern dhoti. Their hair
was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled in a knot on the
top of the head. Men kept short beards and sometimes the upper lip was
shaved.
 Ornaments

• The people were fond of ornaments. Both men and women of all classes
used necklaces fillets, arm lets, finger rings, and bangles. Girdles nose
studs, earrings, and anklets were used by the women alone. There was a
great variety in the shape and design of these ornaments of the Indus
valley people. The rich made the ornaments of gold, silver, ivory, faience
and other semi precious stones like lapis-lazuli, carnelian, agate and
jasper. The poor used ornaments made of copper bone shell and terra
cotta. People knew the art of toilet and cosmetic.
• Toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone. Ladies were well
acquainted with the toilet culture. As stones were not available there it
was imported from other places and so was sparingly used. As no scarp of
iron is found in Mahenjo-daro, this metal was not known to the people.
Indus valley people knew the use of gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and
bronze.
 Amusement

• Among amusements dancing with the accompaniment of the drum, and

dice playing was very common. Hunting was practiced as a common game.
People were also interested in fishing.
 House-hold Articles

• The earthen ware vessels of rich variety prepared by the potters with the help of
their wheel either plain or painted highly burnished with the appearance of
Chinese lacquer discovered from the Mahenjo-daro speaks of the high standard
skill of the people of Mahenjo-daro.
• Very often the pots were ornamented with a pattern of concentric circles in black
and occasionally with figures of trees, birds and animals. Some of the pottery was
ornamented with clay knobs. Vessels of copper, bronze, Silver and porcelain were
known to the people though rarely used.
• A large number of bowls, dishes, cups, saucers, vases, basins, pans, jars, jar
stands, goblets and stone jars of different size were in use by the people as have
been found there. Needles and combs made of bone or ivory, axes, chisels, saws,
knives, fish hooks, and razors copper and bronze were also used by the people.
• Clay models of birds, animals, whistles, rattles, men and women etc. were also
discovered from the region. There were wheeled carts and chairs. People used a
large number of weights of different size. They ranged from large ones to be lifted
with a rope to very small ones used by jewelers.
 Disposal of Dead

• During the excavation the remnants discovered suggest that the dead-
bodies used to be disposed of by burning. Some dead-bodies were buried
under the ground and some were left exposed so that animals or birds
could consume its flesh and then the bones were buried under the earth.
Sir John Marshall said that the process of burning was very common to the
people.
 Position of Women

• Women in the society were highly respected. The worship of mother

goddess indicates that women enjoyed enormous position in the society.
They were equally treated like their male counter-part in the society.
 Economic life

• The basic economy of the people was necessarily agricultural. Cultivation was on an
extensive scale facilitated by the presence of rivers. The principal food grains were
wheat, barley, peas, and sesamum. Cotton was also grown. The general diet
consisted of fruits, vegetables, animal food including beef, mutton, pork and poultry.
 Domesticated of animals

• They had domesticated animals. Humped bull, buffalo, sheep, pig, dog,
elephant and camels were domesticated. Horse was not domesticated. They
used carts in which bullocks were used. The people had learnt the benefit
of domesticating animals and therefore widely practiced the same. It is
evident that the people were familiar to wild animals mainly tiger, bear,
rhinoceros, hair squirrel and monkey.
 Artisans and Traders

• Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with
others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods.

• There is clear evidence of the existence of a highly developed system of

craft production and distribution. There were specialized groups of
potters, copper and bronze workers. The merchants of the Indus Valley
carried their trade far beyond their frontiers of the empire and established
contacts with other peoples of other civilizations.
 Trade (Export and Import)

• Gold was imported from Mysore. Silver was imported from Afghanistan or
Iran, Copper from Rajputana, South India, Baluchistan and Arabia. Lead-
ore was imported from Ajmer and Afghanistan. Jade was collected from
Central Asia. Evidence is found of trade contacts between the Indus
people and Sumerians, Egyptians and other people. Trade between Indus
region and Iraq was carried on through the island of Bahrain in the Persian
Gulf.
• The cuneiform clay tablets speak of the trade through Bahrain have been
amply confirmed by modern excavation. There was an intermediate trade
centre at Magan or Makan identified with Oman or Some other part of
South Arabia. Besides copper peacocks were exported in exchange of
silver and other commodities from Mesopotamia.
 Religion

• An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu
interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites [ was
that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent
features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess;
deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of
the phallus (linga) and vulv (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious
practice.
 Mother Goddess

• From the various articles discovered, one can safely conclude that the people
believed in image worshipping. The image of a female deity resembles the
image of mother goddess which has been identified as the symbol of “Sakti”.
A number of statues have been discovered. One is a seminude female figure
wearing girdle or band-round her loins. Those figures represent the
Mahadevi of the valley.

• The cult of mother goddess seems to have been widely prevalent in the
Indus valley. A long seal discovered at Harappa showing the figure of
Mother Goddess with a man holding a dagger. Women present with hands
lifted represent the prevalence of human sacrifice. Thus it is confirmed that
people believed in female energy as the source of all creation. Marshall
hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon
excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor
of the Hindu sect of Shaktism.
 Pashupati Lord

• Simultaneously the idea of worshipping male god “Shiva-Pasupati” was popular

at that time. On one particular seal we find a figure with two horns on two sides
of a tall head dress surrounded by wild animals and sitting in an erect meditative
posture or a yoga posture. This speaks of to a certain extent the later conception
of Siva.
• Lord Siva is regarded as the Maha-Yogi and is styled as Pasupati or the Lord of
the beasts. The three faces in the figure suggest the concept of trimukha which
directly symbolized the Lord Shiva. The discovery of stone pieces which looked
exactly like Shivalinga, has further confirmed the idea of worshipping god shiva
by the people of Indus valley. One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure with a
horned headdress, possibly tricephalic and possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by
animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva
(or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a
lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence
come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an
epithet of Shiva
 Worship of animals , birds and trees

• Apart from the worship of god and goddess the people of Indus valley used
to worship certain trees, birds, and animals. Some of the animals were
regarded as the ‘Vahana’ of the Shiva. The bull usually depicted with a
single horn was associated with god Shiva. It is strange that the cow so
universally worshipped in later Hinduism is no where depicted in the Indus
seals.
 Water Worship

• The great bath of Mahenjo-daro indicates that the people used to bodily
purify themselves by taking bath on the eve of the religious ceremony
before worshipping either goddess or gods.
 Snake Worship

• From the figure of a pipal tree in a seal indicate that the people used to
accept pipal tree as sacred. The dove was looked upon as sacred. Some
form of Naga Worship was also practiced.
 Swastik - symbol

• The representation of Swastik and the wheel on some seals make us

believe that though actual worship of sun was not there but it was
represented symbolically.
• From the above mentioned similarities it is no use denying that the
Hinduism of the present days is highly indebted to the culture and
civilization of the Indus Valley. Hence it is justified to think that
there is an organic relationship between the ancient culture of the
Indus Valley and the Hinduism of today.
 Decay of Harappan civilisation – Aryan Invasion

• In 1953 Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo-

European tribe from Central Asia, the "Aryans", caused the decline of the
Indus Civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in
various parts of Mohenjo-daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to
battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory,
since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and
none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the
skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the
skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence
 Decay – Climate change

• Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include

changes in the course of the river,[210] and climate change that is also
signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. [211][212] As of
2016 many scholars believe that drought, and a decline in trade with Egypt
and Mesopotamia, caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation
 Decay - Monsoon

• The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed,[215][al][216][am] and water-supply

depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly
cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of
the monsoon at that time.[112] The Indian monsoon declined and aridity
increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills
of the Himalaya,[112][217][218] leading to erratic and less extensive floods that
made inundation agriculture less sustainable.
• Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's
demise, and to scatter its population eastward
 Decay - Flood

• According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop
irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to
summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too
erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated
towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller
villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small
communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out
 Decay - Earthquake

• There are archaeological evidences of major earthquakes at Dholavira in

2200 BCE as well as at Kalibangan in 2700 and 2900 BCE. Such
succession of earthquakes, along with drought, may have contributed to
decline of Ghaggar-Harka system. Sea level changes are also found at two
possible seaport sites along the Makran coast which are now inland.
Earthquakes may have contributed to decline of several sites by direct
shaking damage, by sea level change or by change in water supply