Research Design

Meaning of Research Design

• Once the research problem is defined, the next formidable task is to prepare the
research design
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.”
• It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
• As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing
the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data
Definition of Research Design
• “Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.”
--William Zikmund
• “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance.”
--Kerlinger
Meaning of Research Design
• The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
Meaning of Research Design
• Overall research design can be split into following parts
a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed;
d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs
can be carried out.
Meaning of Research Design
• Important features of research design are
a) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
b) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analysing the data.
c) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints
In short, a research design must atleast consist of
(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied;
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
Functions of a Research Design
• A well structured design help to ensure quality and validity of study.
The two main functions of a research design are
1. Procedural and Logistical Planning
2. Ensuring validity, Objectivity and Accuracy
Procedural and Logistical Planning
• Identification of Procedure – helps in identification and development
of the specific procedures and methods that will be used to conduct
the study. It outlines step-by-step process for colleting, analyzing and
interpreting the data
• Logistical Arrangement – addresses aspects such as data collection
tools, data sources, sampling techniques and the overall timeline of
research.
• Resource Allocation: allocation of resource includes budget,
personnel, equipment need to carry out the research effectively.
Ensuring validity, Objectivity and
Accuracy
• Quality Assurance: a crucial part of research is to ensure quality of research procedure.
It outlines how data will be collected, analysed to minimize error and biases ness.
• Control of Variance: Design aim to control and minimize variance. This involves
identifying potential sources of variation and implementing measures to reduce their
impact.
• Validity: Design help to establish the validity of the study by outlining how the research
will measure what it intent to measure. This includes internal validity – accuracy of
casual inference and external validity – generalizability of finding
• Objectivity: emphasis on the objectivity of data collection and analysis, ensuring the
researcher’s personal biases and subjectivity do not unduly influence the research.
• Accuracy: design set the standard for accurate data collection and analysis, helping
minimize measurement and observation errors and inaccuracies.
Need for Research Design
• Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the
various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
• Example: blue print for building the house
• Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error
in it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing
on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm
foundation of the entire structure of the research work.
• Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the
research exercise useless. It is, therefore, vital that an efficient and appropriate
design must be prepared before starting research operations.
Need for Research Design
• Efficiency and Smooth operation – research design ensures smoot execution of
various research operations
• Analogous to Architectural Design
• Reliability of Results: research design significantly influence the reliability of
research. Servers as a foundation for the entire research project. A well though
design is crucial for ensuring that the research are trustworthy and valid
• Common Oversight: if research design is overlooked, it may lead to research
project that do not fulfill its intended objective
• Preventing Futile Research: No Research design can lead to flaws and inadequacy
that could have been addressed with proper planning
• Critical Evaluation: a well defined research design allows researcher to organize
ideas effectively. Helps in seeking feedback and critical evaluation from others
Features of a Good Design
• A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate,
efficient, economical and so on.
• The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be
the best design in many investigations.
• A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.
• One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research
problems.
Features of a Good Design
• A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,
usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
1. the means of obtaining information;
2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
3. the objective of the problem to be studied;
4. the nature of the problem to be studied;
5. the availability of time and money for the research work.
Features of a Good Design
• Research study can be exploratory or a formulative or accurate
description or of an association between variables
• If research study is exploratory or a formulative - major emphasis is
on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most
appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of
many different aspects of a phenomenon.
• If research study is of accurate description - accuracy becomes a
major consideration and a research design which minimises bias and
maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is considered a
good design.
Features of a Good Design
• Practically, it is the most difficult task to put a particular study in a
particular group, a given research may have in it elements of two or
more of the functions of different studies.
• Classification can be done on the basis of its primary function –
whether the study can either be an exploratory or descriptive or
hypothesis-testing study and accordingly the choice of a research
design may be made in case of a particular study.
• Other factors that must be given due weightage to a good design are
• the availability of time, money, skills of the research staff and the means of
obtaining the information
Features of a Good Design
• Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data
collection and scoring of the responses.
• Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of
measurements. For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a
particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item
even if he is asked repeatedly
• Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it
measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence
test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure only the
intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed
accordingly.
Features of a Good Design
• Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the
samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable
to a large group from which sample is drawn.
• Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good
research design is that it should provide adequate information so that
the research problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective.
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Dependent and independent variables:
• a concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. weight,
height, income are all examples of variables
• A phenomena which can take on different qualitatively values even in decimal value
are called continues.
• Example: age of a person
• But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values,
they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.
• Example: Number of Children
• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as
a dependent variable, and the variable that is ancestor to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.
• Example: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is
an independent variable
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Extraneous variable:
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may
affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
• Example: Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case
self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent
variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not
related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an
extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’.
• A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable
is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous
variable or variables.
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Control:
• One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the
study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental
researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.
• Example: in a drug trial, researcher may control the extraneous variable by ensuring that all
participants receive the same treatment and follow the same protocol
• Confounded relationship:
• When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s),
the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s)
• Example: impact of a new teaching method (independent) on student performance (dependent) is
also affected by the motivation (extraneous). The relation between the teaching method and
performance could be cofounded if the researcher doesn’t control the motivation level
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Research hypothesis:
• When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
• The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable.
• Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and
one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be
objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested,
are not termed research hypotheses.
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:
• When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
• Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
• Example: suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability
by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not
manipulated.
• A researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and
then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and
25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group
in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s performance-level. This is an
example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the
type of training programme, is manipulated.
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Experimental and control groups:
• In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it
is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition,
it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
• In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an
experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then
both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible to design studies which
include only experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control
groups.
• Treatments:
• The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual
studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine
through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of
wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
• Experiment:
• The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment.
• Example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly
developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and
comparative experiment.
• Example: If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of
absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to
the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative
experiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of
experiments.
• Experimental unit(s):
• The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known
as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Different research designs can be conveniently described if we
categorize them as:
1. research design in case of exploratory research studies;
2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Different research designs can be conveniently described if we
categorize them as:
1. research design in case of exploratory research studies;
2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.