Basics of Set Theory

• Fundamentals
• Operations
• Venn Diagram
• Examples
Introduction
• A set is a collection of objects or groups of objects.
Example
A={a,b,c,d}.
E={x:x=2k for some integer k}
Representation of Set
• Roster Form or tabular form
All the elements of the set are listed, separated by commas and enclosed between curly
braces { }.
Example: If set represents all the leap years between the year 1995 and 2015, then it
would be described using Roster form as:
A ={1996,2000,2004,2008,2012}
• Order doesn’t matter for a set represented in the Roster Form.
• Multiplicity is ignored while representing the sets
If L represents a set that contains all the letters in the word ADDRESS, the proper Roster
form representation would be
L ={A,D,R,E,S }= {S,E,D,A,R}
L≠ {A,D,D,R,E,S,S}
Examples
• (i) The counting numbers which are multiples of 5 and less than 50
are {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45}
• (ii) The set of all-natural numbers x which x+6 is greater than 10.
• x={5,6,7,8,…}
• (iii) The set of all integers x for which 30/x is a natural number.
• x={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
Set Builder Form or rule form
• Set-Builder Notation is a type of mathematical notation used to describe sets by
naming their components or highlighting the requirements that each member of
the set must meet. Sets are written in the form of {y | (properties of y)} OR {y :
(properties of y)} in the set-builder notation,

• In set builder form, all the elements have a common property. This property is not
applicable to the objects that do not belong to the set.
• Example: If set S has all the elements which are even prime numbers, it is
represented as:
S={ x: x is an even prime number}

“A set of two-digit perfect square numbers; Represent using roaster as

well as set builder form.”
Solution
• B={16,25,36,49,64,81};B={x:x is a perfect square and two digit
number}

Practice questions

• https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/write-the-following-sets-in-
roster-form-and-also-in-set-builder-form-the-set/
 Fundamentals
• https://byjus.com/maths/subsets/
• https://byjus.com/maths/power-set/

• Subset- If a set A contains elements which are all the elements of set B as well, then A is known as the subset of B and B is
Superset of A.
• Example: If set A has {X, Y} and set B has {X, Y, Z}, then A is the subset of B because elements of A are also
present in set B.

• Subset Symbol
• In set theory, a subset is denoted by the symbol ⊆ and read as ‘is a subset of’.
• Using this symbol we can express subsets as follows:
• A ⊆ B; which means Set A is a subset of Set B.
• Note: A subset can be equal to the set. That is, a subset can contain all the elements that are present in the
set.
• All Subsets of a Set
• The subsets of any set consists of all possible sets including its elements and the null set. Let
us understand with the help of an example.
• Example: Find all the subsets of set A = {1,2,3,4}
• Solution: Given, A = {1,2,3,4}
• Subsets =
• {}
• {1}, {2}, {3}, {4},
• {1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,3},{2,4}, {3,4},
• {1,2,3}, {2,3,4}, {1,3,4}, {1,2,4}
• {1,2,3,4}
• Total subsets= 2^n
• Finite Set- If a set contains no element or a definite number of elements, it is
called a finite set.
• Infinite Set- If a given set is not finite, then it will be an infinite set.
• Universal Set -This is the set which is the base for every other set
formed. Depending upon the context, the universal set is decided. It
may be a finite or infinite set. All the other sets are the subsets of
the Universal set. It is represented by U.
• Power Set- The power set of a set A is the set which consists of all the subsets
of the set A. It is denoted by P(A). P(A) will have 2^n elements.
• Empty Set- there are no elements in the set. This set is represented by ϕ or {}.
• Empty Set
• https
://byjus.com/maths/empty-set/#:~:text=Empty%20Set%20Examples&
text=(i)%20Consider%20set%20A%20%3D,is%20the%20smallest%20c
omposite%20number
.
• (i) Consider set A = {x : 3 < x < 4, x is a whole number} and this set A is
the empty set, since there is no whole number between 3 and 4.
• (ii) Suppose B = {x: x is a composite number less than 4} such that B is
the empty set since 4 is the smallest composite number.
• (iii) The set C = {x : x2 – 3 = 0 and x is rational number} and it is the
empty set since the equation x2 – 3 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational
value of x.
• (iv) The set D = { x : x3 = 27, x is even} is the empty set, since the
equation x3 = 27 is not satisfied by any even value of x.
Set Operations
There are four major types of operations performed on sets, such as:
• Union of sets (∪)
• Intersection of sets (∩)
• Difference of sets ( – )
• Complement (‘ )

• https://byjus.com/maths/set-operations/
Union of Sets
If two sets A and B are given, then the union of A and B is equal to the
set that contains all the elements present in set A and set B. This
operation can be represented as;
A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Where x is the elements present in both sets A and B.
Example: If set A = {1,2,3,4} and B {6,7}
Then, Union of sets, A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,6,7}
Intersection of Sets
• If two sets A and B are given, then the intersection of A and B is the
subset of universal set U, which consist of elements common to both
A and B. It is denoted by the symbol ‘∩’. This operation is represented
by:
• A∩B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
• Where x is the common element of both sets A and B.
• Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {3,4,5}
• Then, A∩B = {3}; because 3 is common to both the sets.
Difference of Sets
• If there are two sets A and B, then the difference of two sets A and B
is equal to the set which consists of elements present in A but not in
B. It is represented by A-B.
• Example: If A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and B = {6,7} are two sets.
• Then, the difference of set A and set B is given by;
A – B = {1,2,3,4,5}
• We can also say, that the difference of set A and set B is equal to the
intersection of set A with the complement of set B. Hence,
A−B=A∩B’
Complement of Set
• If U is a universal set and X is any subset of U then the complement of
X is the set of all elements of the set U apart from the elements of X.
• X′ = {a : a ∈ U and a ∉ A}
Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram is a diagram that helps us visualize the logical
relationship between sets and their elements and helps us solve
examples based on these sets. A Venn diagram typically uses
intersecting and non-intersecting circles (although other closed figures
like squares may be used) to denote the relationship between sets.
• https://www.embibe.com/exams/venn-diagram-operations-on-sets/

• https://byjus.com/maths/venn-diagrams/
Venn Diagram Formula
• n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ⋂ B)
• n (A U B U C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ⋂ B) - n(B ⋂ C) - n(C ⋂ A) +
n(A ⋂ B ⋂ C)
Solved Examples
• Let us take an example of two sets A and B, where A = {3, 7, 9} and B
= {4, 8}. These two sets are subsets of the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Find A ∪ B.
• Either or , or --- Union (Include both also)
• And --- Intersection
• Either A or B but not both--- Symmetric difference
Symmetric Difference in Venn
Diagram
• In a cricket school, 12 players like bowling, 15 like batting, and 5 like both.
Then how many players like either bowling or batting.
Sol. Let A and B be the sets of players who like bowling and batting
respectively. Then
• n(A) = 12
• n(B) = 15
• n(A ⋂ B) = 5
• We have to find n(A U B). Using the Venn diagram formula,
• n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ⋂ B)
• n(A U B) = 12 + 15 - 5 = 22.
• For the purposes of a marketing research, a survey of 1000 women is
conducted in a town. The results show that 52 % liked watching
comedies, 45% liked watching fantasy movies and 60% liked watching
romantic movies. In addition, 25% liked watching comedy and fantasy
both, 28% liked watching romantic and fantasy both and 30% liked
watching comedy and romantic movies both. 6% liked watching none
of these movie genres. Find out:
• How many women like watching all the three movie genres?
• Find the number of women who like watching only one of the three
genres.
• Find the number of women who like watching at least two of the
given genres.
Let’s represent the data above in a more digestible way using the Venn diagram
formula elements:
• n(C) = percentage of women who like watching comedy = 52%
• n(F) = percentage of women who like watching fantasy = 45%
• n(R)= percentage of women who like watching romantic movies= 60%
• n(C∩F) = 25%; n(F∩R) = 28%; n(C∩R) = 30%
• Since 6% like watching none of the given genres so, n (C ∪ F ∪ R) = 94%.
• 94% = 52% + 45% + 60% – 25% – 28% – 30% + n (C ∩ F ∩ R)
• Solving this simple math equation, lead us to:
• n (C ∩ F ∩ R) = 20%
From the Venn diagram example, we can answer our questions with
ease.
• The number of women who like watching all the three genres = 20%
of 1000 = 200.
• Number of women who like watching only one of the three genres =
(17% + 12% + 22%) of 1000 = 510
• The number of women who like watching at least two of the given
genres = (number of women who like watching only two of the
genres) +(number of women who like watching all the three genres)
= (10 + 5 + 8 + 20)% i.e. 43% of 1000 = 430.
For practice
• https://www.embibe.com/exams/venn-diagram-operations-on-sets/

• https://byjus.com/maths/venn-diagrams/
Cartesian Product of Sets
• https://byjus.com/maths/cartesian-products-of-sets/
Truth Table
• https://byjus.com/maths/truth-table/

• Conditional or also known as ‘if-then’ operator, gives results as True

for all the input values except when True implies False case. It is
denoted by ‘⇒’. This operation is logically equivalent to ~P ∨ Q
operation.

• A biconditional is written as p↔q and is translated as " p if and only if

q′′. Because a biconditional statement p↔q is equivalent
to (p→q)∧(q→p)
Truth tables

P Q AND OR NAND NOR XOR Conditional Bi-conditional

(∧) (∨) (~∧) (~∨) (⊻) ( ⇒) ( ⇔)
T T T T F F F T T
T F F T T F T F F
F T F T T F T T F
F F F F T T F T T
• Conjunction (∧)
• Disjunction (∨)
• Negation (~)
• Implication (⇒)
• Tautology
• Contradiction or fallacy

• https://byjus.com/maths/tautology/
Cryptarithmetic Problems
Cryptarithmetic problems, also known as alphametics, are a type of puzzle where you need to
assign digits to letters to make a valid mathematical equation. The goal is to replace each
letter with a digit in such a way that the equation holds true.

Some Basic Rules

• Every Character/letter must have a unique and distinct value

• The values of a character/letter can not be changed, and should remain same throughout
• Starting character of number can not be zero example – 0341 should be simply 341.
• The problem will have only and only one solution
• Addition of two numbers is always even
• In case of addition of two numbers, if there is carry then, the carry can only be 1
• Once all the characters/letters are replaced with numbers, arithmetic operations must be
correct
 The history and significance of cryptarithmetic puzzles
Cryptarithmetic puzzles have a rich history and significance in the world of recreational
mathematics and puzzle-solving.

Early Origins: Cryptarithmetic problems have been around since prehistoric times and served
as a sort of intellectual challenge and pleasure. They did, however, become more well-known
in the 20th century.

Simon and Schuster: In the early 20th century, the publishing business Simon & Schuster
helped make cryptarithmetic puzzles popular in the United States. They released books of
puzzles, such as "Crossword Puzzle Book," which had cryptarithmetic riddles.

Martin Gardner: The famous mathematician and writer Martin Gardner played a significant
role in promoting cryptarithmetic puzzles. He wrote a regular column for Scientific American,
where he featured various mathematical puzzles, including cryptarithmetic problems. His
work contributed to their continued popularity.
 Significance of Cryptarithmetic
Problems

Educational Value: Puzzles requiring cryptarithmetic are a great way to encourage critical
thinking, problem-solving, and mathematical reasoning. They are useful for educational
reasons, particularly in the teaching of mathematics, because they call for careful analysis
and methodical deduction.

Recreational Mathematics: Cryptarithmetic puzzles are a popular form of recreational

mathematics. They offer entertainment and mental stimulation for people of all ages.

Computer Science: Problems with cryptorrithmetic have application in the fields of

computer science and cryptography. Understanding substitution and logic rules utilised in
these puzzles is essential to comprehending more advanced cryptography systems, such
as the Caesar cypher.
 Understanding the constraints of
cryptarithmetic problems

Cryptarithmetic problems come with several constraints that must be adhered to in order
to find a valid solution. Understanding these constraints is essential for successfully solving
these puzzles.

One-to-One Mapping: Each letter in the puzzle represents a unique digit. In other words,
no two different letters can stand for the same digit. For example, if 'A' represents '2,' no
other letter can also represent '2.'

Digits 0-9: The digits used to represent the letters must be limited to the range from 0 to
9. This means that you cannot assign any letter a value outside this range.

No Leading Zeros: Leading zeros are not allowed for any word. The first letter of any word
cannot be assigned the value '0.'
Mathematical Operations: The mathematical operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc.) within the puzzle must be respected. In addition and subtraction
puzzles, carrying and borrowing must be correctly applied.

Consistency: The values assigned to letters must be consistent throughout the puzzle. If
you assign 'A' to '2' in one place, it should be '2' everywhere else in the puzzle.

Commutative Property: Cryptarithmetic puzzles typically follow the commutative

property of addition. This means that the order in which digits are added does not affect
the sum. For example, if 'A' + 'B' = 'C,' then 'B' + 'A' = 'C.’

Unique Solution: Cryptarithmetic puzzles generally have a unique solution. In other

words, there is only one way to assign values to the letters to make the equation true.

Pattern Constraints: Some letters may have constraints imposed by specific patterns in
the puzzle. For example, if 'X' appears in both the multiplication and addition parts of the
puzzle, it must have the same value in both places.
 Solving strategies and approaches for
cryptarithmetic puzzles
Solving cryptarithmetic puzzles requires a systematic approach and a combination of
logical deduction and trial-and-error strategies. Some of them are:

Identify Key Clues:

Start by identifying any crucial clues in the puzzle. Look for words or expressions that can
help you deduce the values of certain letters.

Focus on Unique Letters:

Begin with letters that appear only once in the puzzle or in unique
positions. These letters often have limited possible values, making them
easier to solve.

Use the Cryptarithmetic Operator:

Pay attention to the operator in the puzzle (e.g., addition '+' or
Start with Zero Restrictions:
Identify letters that cannot be assigned the value '0' based on the puzzle's rules. These are
typically the letters in the first position of a word or those affected by subtraction.

Trial and Error:

Begin assigning digits to letters based on your deductions. If you're unsure, make educated
guesses and see if they lead to a consistent solution.

Carry and Borrow Logic:

When solving addition problems, pay attention to carrying digits over from one column to
the next and borrowing in subtraction problems. These operations can help you deduce
values for other letters.

Eliminate Possibilities:
As you make more assignments, use deductive reasoning to eliminate possibilities for other
letters. For example, if you've assigned 'A' as '2,' eliminate '2' as an option for other letters.
Problem 1

TO + GO = OUT. Find the value of T + G + O + U?

Step 1
The value of O is clearly 1. (Rule 6)
Since, T + G is generating O is carry so value of O is 1.

Step 2
Value of T = 1 + 1
Thus, value of T = 2
Step 3
Now, 2 + G > 10 (as its resulting a carry 1 on next)
Now, possible values of G to get 1 carry at next step is – {G = 8 or 9}

If G is 9 then –

U = 2 + 9 = 11
So value of U becomes 1 and 1 goes to carry
Now, value of O is already 1 so U value can not
be 1 also.
Now, obv the value of G has to be 8, lets verify this also

U = 2 + 8 = 10
So value of U becomes 0, there is no conflict.

So final values are –

T = 2, O = 1, G = 8, U = 0

Final Step
Replace values in all steps

Therefor, ans is 11
Problem 2
If POINT + ZERO = ENERGY, then E + N + E + R + G + Y = ?

E is 1 as max carry possible is 1

P + (nothing) = N, it should have had been P
This means that there is a carry from previous step
P + 1 (carry) =10 as it gives Carry at next step to result E
Thus, P = 9
E = P + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
So, E = 1, P = 9, N = 0
Step 2
• In, column 2, R + 0 = G, this means there must be 1 carry from previous step
• Thus, G = R + 1 that means they are consecutive and G >R
• Similarly, in column 3, R = I + 1. This means I and R as consecutive, with R >G
• Since, G = R + 1 and R = I + 1 => G = (I + 1) + 1 => G = I + 2
• Thus, G, R and I are consecutive, with G > R > I.

Step 3
T+O=Y
T + O > 10, as its generating carry on next step.
It will also not be 10 or 11 as T + O = Y and Y cant be 0 or 1 as those values are already
taken.
So lets assume T + O to be 12. Thus, Y = 2
Possible values can be –
T, O = (3, 9) not possible as 9 already taken
T, O = (4, 8) possible as unoccupied, let’s try this.
Step 4
Till now the values are –
N = 0, E = 1, Y = 2, T = 4, O = 8, P = 9
Remaining values are 3, 5, 6, 7
Now, Z + 8 = 11
Thus, Z has to be 3
And since, we already know G, R, I are consecutive, thus, they are 7, 6, 5

So, E + N + E + R + G + Y = 1 + 0 + 1 + 6 + 7 +2 = 17

Practice questions

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