Electromagnetic Theory

Coulomb’s Law
It states that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is
kQ1Q2
F 2
R
In Vector form

Or

If we have more than two point charges

 Electric Field Intensity
Electric Field Intensity is the force per unit charge when placed in the
electric field
F
E
Q
In Vector form

If we have more than two point charges

 Electric Field due to Continuous Charge
Distribution
If there is a continuous charge distribution say along a line, on a
surface, or in a volume

The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to these charge
distributions can be obtained by
The electric field intensity due to each charge distribution ρL, ρS and
ρV may be given by the summation of the field contributed by the
numerous point charges making up the charge distribution.
 Electric Field Intensity due to Infinite
Line
Assumptions: (1) Consider the infinite Charge
line charge is placed along z-axis from - ∞ to + ∞.
(2) Consider this line charge as axis of the cylinder in cylindrical coordinates.
(3) The point, where we desire the field is in xy plane at (r, Ф, 0) or (ρ, Ф, 0 ).
Electric Field Intensity due to Infinite
Line Charge
Electric Field Intensity due to Infinite
Line Charge
 Electric Field Intensity due to Surface Charge
(Infinite Sheet)
Assumptions: (1) Consider the infinite sheet with charge density ρ (C/m2) in the x plane.
(2) The point, where we desire the field is on z-axis at (0, 0, z).
Electric Field Intensity due to Surface Charge
(Infinite Sheet)
Electric Field Intensity due to Surface Charge
(Infinite Sheet)
 Electric Field Intensity due to Infinite
Line Charge

Electric Field Intensity due to Surface Charge

(Infinite Sheet)

In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing between the two plates
having equal and opposite charges is given by

Electric Field Intensity due to Volume

Charge
 Electric Flux Density
The electric field intensity depends on the medium in which the
charges are placed.
Suppose a vector field D independent of the medium is defined by

D ε E o

The electric flux ψ in terms of D can be defined as

The vector field D is called the electric flux density and is measured
in coulombs per square meter.
 Electric Flux Density

For an infinite sheet the electric flux density D is given by

For a volume charge distribution the electric flux density D is given

by

In both the above equations D is a function of charge and position

only (independent of medium)
 Gauss Law
It states that the total electric flux ψ through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.

 Qenc

(i)
Using Divergence Theorem

(ii)

Comparing the two volume integrals in (i) and (ii)

This is the first Maxwell’s equation.

It states that the volume charge density is the same as the divergence
of the electric flux density.
 Applications of Gauss Law (Point charge)
Let a point charge is located at Origin.
To determine D at a point P, consider a spherical surface centered at
Origin.
D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface.

Hence
 Applications of Gauss Law (Infinite Line
Consider the infinite line of charge)
uniform charge ρL C/m lies along the z-
axis.
To determine D at a point P, consider a cylindrical surface centered at
Origin.
D is constant and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface.

Here
 Applications of Gauss Law (Infinite Line
charge)

evaluated on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder is

zero since D has no z-component. It means D is tangential to the
surfaces.

Hence
 Applications of Gauss Law (Infinite
Sheet of charge)
Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge ρS C/m2 lying on the
z = 0 plane.
To determine D at point P, lets choose a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two of its faces parallel
to the sheet.

D is normal to the sheet

Applying Gauss Law

 Applications of Gauss Law (Infinite
Sheet of charge)
evaluated on the sides of the box is zero as D has no
components along
If the top and bottom of the box, each has area A then

Hence

or
Applications of Gauss Law (Uniformly
charged Sphere)
 Applications of Gauss Law (Uniformly
charged Sphere)

Finally,
 Electric Potential
Electric Field intensity, E due to a charge distribution can be obtained
from Coulomb’s Law.
or using Gauss Law when the charge distribution is symmetric.
We can obtain E without involving vectors by using the electric scalar
potential V.
From Coulomb’s Law the force on point
charge Q is
F Q E
The work done in displacing the charge
by length dl is

dW F .dl Q E.dl
The positive sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
 The total work done or the potential energy required in moving the
point charge Q from A to B is B
W Q E.dl
A

Dividing the above equation by Q gives the potential energy per unit
charge.
B
W
E.dl VAB
Q A
VAB is known as the potential difference between points A and B.
1. If V AB is negative, there is loss in potential energy in moving Q
from A to B (work is being done by the field),Vif
AB is positive, there
is a gain in potential energy in the movement (an external agent does
the work).
2. It is independent of the path taken. It is measured in Joules per
Coulomb referred as Volt.
The potential at any point due to a point charge Q located at the origin is
Q
V
4 o r
The potential at any point is the potential difference between that
point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.
Assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from
the point charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent
in transferring a test charge from infinity to that point.
r
V  E.d l

If the point charge Q is not at origin but at a point whose position
vector is r ' , the potential V ( r ' ) at r ' becomes
Q
V (r ) 
4 o | r  r ' |
 For n point charges Q1, Q2, Q3…..Qn located at points with position
vectors r 1 , r 2 , r 3 .....r n the potential at r is
n
1 Qk
V (r ) 
4 o
|r r
k 1 |
k

If there is continuous charge distribution instead of point charges then

the potential at r becomes

The primed coordinates are used customarily to denote source point

location and the unprimed coordinates refer to field point.
 Relationship between E and V
The potential difference between points A and B is independent of the
path taken
VAB  VBA
B A

VAB E.d l and VBA  E.d l 

B
A

VAB  VBA E.d l 0

E.d l 0 (i)

It means that the line integral of E along a closed path must be zero.
Physically it means that no net work is done in moving a charge along
a closed path in an electrostatic field.
Applying Stokes’s theorem to equation (i)

E.d l (E ).d S 0

E 0 (ii)
Equation (i) and (ii) are known as Maxwell’s equation for static
electric fields.
Equation (i) is in integral form while equation (ii) is in differential
form, both depicting conservative nature of an electrostatic field.
Also
E  V
It means Electric Field Intensity is the gradient of V.
The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the
direction in which V increases.
 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal

magnitude but of opposite sign are separated by a small distance.

The potential at P (r, θ, Φ) is

If r >> d, r2 - r1 = d cosθ
and r1r2 = r2 then
But d cos  d .ar where d d a z

If we define p Q d as the dipole moment, then

The dipole moment p is directed from –Q to +Q.

if the dipole center is not at the origin but at r ' then
 Polarization in Dielectrics
Consider an atom of the dielectric consisting of an electron cloud (-Q)
and a positive nucleus (+Q).
When an electric field is applied, the positive charge is displaced
E
from its equilibrium position in the direction of by while
E F Q E
the negative charge is displaced by in the opposite
F Q E
direction.

A dipole results from the displacement of charges and the dielectric is

polarized. In polarized the electron cloud is distorted by the applied
electric field.
This distorted charge distribution is equivalent to the original
distribution plus the dipole whose moment is
p Q d
where d is the distance vector between -Q to +Q.
If there are N dipoles in a volume Δv of the dielectric, the total dipole
moment due to the electric field

For the measurement of intensity of polarization, we define

polarization P as dipole moment per unit volume
The major effect of the electric field on the dielectric is the creation of
dipole moments that align themselves in the direction of electric field.
This type of dielectrics are said to be non-polar. eg: H2, N2, O2
Other types of molecules that have in-built permanent dipole moments
are called polar. eg: H2O, HCl
When electric field is applied to a polar material then its permanent
dipole experiences a torque that tends to align its dipole moment in the
direction of the electric field.
 Field due to a Polarized Dielectric
Consider a dielectric material consisting of dipoles with Dipole
moment P per unit volume.
'
The potential dV at an external point O due to Pdv

(i)

where R2 = (x-x’)2+(y-y’)2+(z-z’)2 and R is the

distance between volume element dv’ and the
point O.
But

Applying the vector identity

= -
Because
Put this in (i) and integrate over the entire volume v’ of the dielectric

Applying Divergence Theorem to the first term

(ii)

where an’ is the outward unit normal to the surface dS’ of the dielectric
The two terms in (ii) denote the potential due to surface and volume
charge distributions with densities
where ρps and ρpv are the bound surface and volume charge densities.
Bound charges are those which are not free to move in the dielectric
material.
Equation (ii) says that where polarization occurs, an equivalent
volume charge density, ρpv is formed throughout the dielectric while
an equivalent surface charge density, ρps is formed over the surface of
dielectric.
The total positive bound charge on surface S bounding the dielectric is

while the charge that remains inside S is

Total charge on dielectric remains zero.

Total charge =

When dielectric contains free charge

If ρv is the free charge volume density then the total volume charge
density ρt

Hence

Where
 E
The effect of the dielectric on the electric field D
is to increase
P
inside it by an amount .
The polarization would vary directly as the applied electric field.

Where  e is known as the electric susceptibility of the material

It is a measure of how susceptible a given dielectric is to electric fields.
 Dielectric Constant and Strength

We know that
and
Thus

or

where
  o r
and

where є is the permittivity of the dielectric, єo is the permittivity of the

free space and єr is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity.
No dielectric is ideal. When the electric field in a dielectric is
sufficiently high then it begins to pull electrons completely out of the
molecules, and the dielectric becomes conducting.
When a dielectric becomes conducting then it is called dielectric
breakdown. It depends on the type of material, humidity, temperature
and the amount of time for which the field is applied.
The minimum value of the electric field at which the dielectric
breakdown occurs is called the dielectric strength of the dielectric
material.
or
The dielectric strength is the maximum value of the electric field that a
dielectric can tolerate or withstand without breakdown.