Name of the Staff : AYYAPPS SRINIVASAN M G

Programme : B.E
Course Code &Title : IC8451/ CONTROL SYSTEM

Year / Semester : II/IV

 UNIT III
FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND SYSTEM
ANALYSIS
Advantages of Frequency Response Analysis :

Disadvantages of Frequency Response methods:

• The methods which are considered for obtaining frequency response are outdated as
compared to extensive methods developed for modeling and simulations.
Frequency Domain Specifications
Gain margin:
The gain margin is the number of dB that is below 0
dB at the phase crossover frequency
(ø=-180º). It can also be increased before the closed loop
system becomes unstable

Phase margin:
The phase margin is the number of degrees the
phase of that is above -180º at the gain crossover
frequency
 Frequency Response of Second order system-Derivation
Resonant Peak and Resonant Frequency:
Consider a standard second order system closed loop transfer function is

We convert the equation to the frequency response by replacing s by j ,

Hence,

This term is complex and hence has magnitude and phase,

We know that resonant frequency at =r (u=ur), magnitude is maximum. Using
maxima theorem of derivatives,we get the maximum magnitude

Replace u by ur in above equation

Put this condition in the equation for M and solve for Mr.
 BODE PLOT
• A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system
engineering to determine the stability of a control system. A
Bode plot maps the frequency response of the system through
two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot (expressing the
magnitude in decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing
the phase shift in degrees).

• Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s by Hendrik

Wade Bode while he was working at Bell Labs in the United
States. Although Bode plots offer a relatively simple method
to calculate system stability, they can not handle transfer
functions with right half plane singularities (unlike Nyquist
stability criterion).
Gain Margin:
•The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of
the system. The gain margin refers to the amount of gain, which
can be increased or decreased without making the system
unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.

•We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode
plot. This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the
magnitude curve (on the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at
the frequency where the Bode phase plot = 180°. This point is
known as the phase crossover frequency.
Gain Margin Formula
•The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:
GM = 0 - GdB
•Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from
the vertical axis of the magnitude plot at the phase crossover
frequency.

•In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20.
Hence using our formula for gain margin, the gain margin is
equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB (unstable).
Phase Margin:
•The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the
stability of the system. The phase margin refers to the amount of
phase, which can be increased or decreased without making the
system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
•We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode
plot (as shown in the diagram above). This is done by calculating
the vertical distance between the phase curve (on the Bode phase
plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode magnitude
plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
Phase Margin Formula
•The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:
•PM = φ - (- 180°)
•In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°.
Hence using our formula for phase margin, the phase margin is
equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9° (unstable).
 Design Procedure for Bode plot:
• Substitute the s = jω in the open loop transfer function
G(s) × H(s).
• Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.
• Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency
range such that the plot should start with the frequency which
is lower than the lowest corner frequency.
• Mark angular frequencies on the x-axis, mark slopes on the
left hand side of the y-axis by marking a zero slope in the
middle and on the right hand side mark phase angle by taking -
180° in the middle.
• Calculate the gain factor and the type of order of the system.
• Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.
For drawing the Bode magnitude plot:
•Mark the corner frequency on the semi-log graph paper.
•Tabulate these factors moving from top to bottom in the given
sequence.
•Constant term K.
•Integral factor
•First order factor
•First order factor (1+jωT).
•Second order or quadratic factor:

•Now sketch the line with the help of the corresponding slope of
the given factor. Change the slope at every corner frequency by
adding the slope of the next factor. You will get the magnitude
plot.
•Calculate the gain margin.
For drawing the Bode phase plot:
•Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors.
•Substitute various values to the above function in order to find
out the phase at different points and plot a curve. You will get a
phase curve.
•Calculate the phase margin.
•Bode Stability Criterion
Stability conditions are given below:
•For a Stable System: Both the margins should be positive or
phase margin should be greater than the gain margin.
•For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins should be zero or
phase margin should be equal to the gain margin.
•For Unstable System: If any of them is negative or phase margin
should be less than the gain margin.
 Advantages of a Bode Plot
• It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a
simple method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
• The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the
transfer function can be treated as an addition, while division
can be treated as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic
scale.
• With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the
stability of the system without doing any calculations.
• Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain margin
and phase margin.
• It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.
 Polar Plot
• The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the
magnitude and the phase angle of G( jω)H(jω) by varying ω
from zero to ∞.

• The polar graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines.

• Polar plot is a plot of magnitude versus phase angle in complex

plane .
(i.e., locus of magnitude traced by the phasor by varying frequency from 0 to ∞)
Advantages of Polar plots:
• It depicts the frequency response characteristics over the entire
frequency range in a single plot.

• Much easier to determine both wpc and wgc.

• Here we will have to work with open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)
(and not with closed loop transfer function and unlike Bode plot we
need not required to convert G(s)H(s) to the time constant form).

Disadvantage of Polar plots:

• The plot does not clearly indicate the contribution of each
individual factor of the open loop transfer function.
 Polar Plot
Basics of Polar Plot:
• The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G( jω) is a plot
of the magnitude of G(jω) Vs the phase of G(jω) on polar co-
ordinates as ω is varied from 0 to ∞.
i.e., |G(jω)| Vs angle G(jω) as ω → 0 to ∞.
• Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
• Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
• Radial lines represents the phase angles.
• In polar sheet:
• +ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 00
• -ve phase angle is measured in CW from 00.
 Polar Plot
To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the
entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity
(1) the start of plot where ω = 0,
(2) the end of plot where ω = ∞,
(3) where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e.,
Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
(4) where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e.,
Re(G(jω)) = 0.
 Polar Plot
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
• Express the given expression of OLTF in (1+sT) form.
• Substitute s = jω in the expression for G(s)H(s) and get G(jω)H(jω).
• Get the expressions for |G(jω)H(jω)| & G(jω)H(jω).
• Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different
values of ω ranging from 0 to ∞.
• Usually the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and
around corner frequencies.
• Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.
• Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a
smooth curve.
• Write the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.
 Example-1
Q. Sketch the Polar Plot of a 1st Order Pole of 10/(s+2) Step 3: Vary ‘ω’ from 0 to ∞.
Now instead of taking different
Sol: The given transfer function is
values of ω, we simply take two
Step 1: The first step would be convert this transfer extreme values of ω. i.e., ω = 0
function to the frequency domain. This can be done by and ω = ∞
converting ‘s’ by ‘jω’.

Step 2: We now find the magnitude and phase.

Polar Plot
the magnitude is +5 and
Now these two points are sufficient to draw the polar plot. At ω = 0 since
angle is 0, we draw it on the right side horizontal axis. At ω = ∞, the magnitude is 0 while angle is -90 0,
hence we draw it as dot (zero magnitude) on the -90 0.
 Example-2 (Effect of adding more Simple Poles)
Q. Sketch the Polar Plot for the given transfer function
10/(s+2)(s+4)
Sol: The given transfer function is

Step 1: The first step would be convert this transfer

function to the frequency domain. This can be done by
converting ‘s’ by ‘jω’.

Now these two points are sufficient to draw the

Step 2: We now find the magnitude and phase.
polar plot. At ω = 0 since the magnitude is +5
and angle is 0, we draw it on the right side
horizontal axis. At ω = ∞, the magnitude is 0
while angle is -900, hence we draw it as dot
(zero magnitude) on the -90.

Step 3: Vary ‘ω’ from 0 to ∞.

Now instead of taking different values of ω,
we simply take two extreme values of ω
i.e., ω = 0 and ω = ∞
Polar Plot
Polar Plots-Examples
Polar Plot
Polar Plot
 Stability on Polar plots
Polar plots are simple method to check the stability of the system.
 Necessary of Compensation
• In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we
use compensating networks. Compensating networks are
applied to the system in the form of feed forward path gain
adjustment.
• Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
• A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
• These compensating networks increase the steady state
accuracy of the system. An important point to be noted here is
that the increase in the steady state accuracy brings instability
to the system.
• Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the
system thereby causes changes in the transfer function of the
system. Due to this, performance specifications of the system
change.
 Methods of Compensation
Connecting compensating circuit between error detector and
plants known as series compensation.
When a compensator used in a feedback manner called feedback
compensation.
A combination of series and feedback compensator is called load
compensation.
 Phase Lead Compensation
• A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the
zero which is closer to the origin than all over zeros is known
as dominating zero.) is known as lead network. If we want to
add a dominating zero for compensation in control system
then we have to select lead compensation network.
• The basic requirement of the phase lead network is that all
poles and zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie
on (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a zero located at
the origin of nearest origin.

• Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lead

compensation network.
• Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lead
compensation network.
• From above circuit we get,

• Equating above expression of I we get,

• Now let us determine the transfer function for the given
network and the transfer function can be determined by
finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
• So taking Laplace transform of both side of above equations,
• On substituting the α = (R1 +R2)/ R2 and T = {(R1R2) /(R1
+R2)} in the above equation. Where, T and α are respectively
the time constant and attenuation constant, we have

• The above network can be visualized as an amplifier with a

gain of 1/α. Let us draw the pole zero plot for the above
transfer function.
• Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function)
is closer to origin than the -1/(αT) (which is the pole of the
transfer function).Thus we can say in the lead compensator
zero is more dominating than the pole and because of this lead
network introduces positive phase angle to the system when
connected in series.
• Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also
we have α < 1. On finding the phase angle function for the
transfer function we have
• Now in order to find put the maximum phase lead occurs at a
frequency let us differentiate this phase function and equate it
to zero. On solving the above equation we get

• Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. And the

corresponding magnitude of the transfer function at maximum
θm is 1/a.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation:
•The velocity constant Kv increases.
•The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover
frequency so that relative stability improves and error decrease
due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
•Phase margin increases.
•Response become faster.
Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation:
•Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the
system increases because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a
higher value.
•Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum
overshoot of the system decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation:
•Steady state error is not improved.
 Phase Lag Compensation
• A system which has one zero and one dominating pole (the
pole which is closer to origin that all other poles is known as
dominating pole) is known as lag network. If we want to add a
dominating pole for compensation in control system then, we
have to select a lag compensation network.

• The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles
and zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie in
(-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a pole located or on

the nearest to the origin.

Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag
compensation network.

We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor

R2 and the capacitor C. From the above circuit diagram, we get
• Now let us determine the transfer function for the given
network and the transfer function can be determined by
finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
• Taking Laplace transform of above two equation we get,

• On substituting the
• The above network provides a high frequency gain of 1 / β. Let us
draw the pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

• Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far

to origin than the -1 / (βT)(which is the pole of the transfer
function). Thus we can say in the lag compensator pole is more
dominating than the zero and because of this lag network introduces
negative phase angle to the system when connected in series.
• Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also
we have a < 1. On finding the phase angle function for the
transfer function we have

• Now in order to find put the maximum phase lag occurs at a

frequency let us differentiate this phase function and equate it
to zero. On solving the above equation we get

• Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. Remember β is

generally chosen to be greater than 10.
Effect of Phase Lag Compensation:
•Gain crossover frequency increases.
•Bandwidth decreases.
•Phase margin will be increase.
•Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the
rise time and the settling time become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation:
•Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies
are attenuated.
•Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state
accuracy increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation:
•Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the
system decreases.
 Phase Lag Lead Compensation
• With single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied design
specifications. For an unstable uncompensated system, lead
compensation provides fast response but does not provide
enough phase margin whereas lag compensation stabilize the
system but does not provide enough bandwidth. So we need
multiple compensators in cascade.
• Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag- lead
compensation network.
• Now let us determine transfer function for the given network and
the transfer function can be determined by finding the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage.

• On substituting the αT1 = R1C1, R2C2 = βT2, R1R2C1C2 =

αβT1T2 and T1T2 = R1R2C1C2 in the above equation (where T1,
T2 and α, β are respectively the time constants and attenuation
constants). We have
• Let us draw the pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

• Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function)

is far to the origin than the -1/(βT)(which is the pole of the
transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag-lead
compensation pole is more dominating than the zero and
because of this lag-lead network may introduces positive
phase angle to the system when connected in series.
Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation:
•Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the
system increases because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a
higher value.
•Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is
improved.
 Definition
 Both a lead compensator and a lag compensator have the same
shape:
Lead compensators: Lag compensators:
 Definition
 Their differences show themselves clearly by comparing their
respective Bode plots:

Lead compensator Lag compensator

 Lead compensators: impact
 They push the poles of the closed loop system to the left
 Stabilization of system
 Fast response
 Increase phase margin
 Thanks to the presence of
a pole, the high frequencies
(where most of the unwante d
noise is located) are less
amplified
 Lead compensators: design with Bode plots
 Focus: design lead compensators to tune the phase margin
(PM)

0
gain crossover

dB

PM −180°
 Lead compensators: design with Bode plots
 Other design characteristics are also possible

0 −3 dB
DC gain

gai dB
gain margin bandwidth

−180°
 Lead compensators: design with Bode plots

 Design process: tuning of the phase margin, with as a

surplus (because we will have one extra degree of
freedom) the tuning of the steady state error.
 Compensate for the excessive phase lag that is a result
of the components of P(s)
 Increase in phase at gain crossover frequency (GCF)
if GCF is around pole and zero of the lead
compensator
 Gain is impacted by the lead compensator
 Lag compensators: impact (Bode)
Lead compensator
 Lead compensators: increase the
stability and tune the steady-state
error by increasing the phase at the
crossover frequency
Impact lag compensator = lead
compensator, but different approach!
By decreasing the gain, the gain
to Lag compensator
crossover frequency comes down
a frequency at which the
corresponding phase is higher
 Lag compensators: impact (Bode)
Lead compensator
 Large difference between lead and
lag: 3
their effect on the bandwidth of the dB
system and hence on its speed of
 response
A lead compensator increases the
bandwidth/speed of response
 Lag compensator
A lag compensator decreases the
3
dB
bandwidth/speed of response
 Lag compensators: design with Bode plots, example
5. Verify!

indeed ≥ 4
 The new P M is

0°
 Short discussion of lag-lead compensators
 In some cases you would want to combine the effects of a
lag and a lead compensator:
 Frequency domain:
In most cases a lead compensator is more fit to increase the
phase margin and a lag compensator is better at decreasing
the steady-state error
 Time domain:
You might want to adapt the root locus with a lead
compensator, and decrease the steady-state error while
leaving the new root locus unaltered with a lag
compensator
 Short discussion of lag-lead compensators
 The disadvantage of a lag-lead compensator over a lag
compensator or a lead compensator is its increased
complexity, and hence cost (the same way a lag or lead
compensator is more complex/costly than a proportional
controller)
 We will not go over a design procedure for this other
typical classical control component, as it does not add
more insight than the separate compensators do