Aeration

Dissolved Oxygen in Aquaculture Ponds

 After "nutrient" in the practical sense, the availability of
oxygen
is commonly the next factor limiting aquaculture production
after
the animals' food requirements are met.
 The reason that dissolved oxygen is so important stems
from the crucial role played by oxygen in aerobic
respiration and the relatively low concentrations of
dissolved oxygen available in water.
 Of course, the water molecule is nearly 90% oxygen by
weight, but that oxygen is firmly bound with hydrogen and
not available for respiration.
 The oxygen used in respiration by aquatic organisms is
Problems with the limited supply of dissolved oxygen in
water are compounded in aquaculture ponds because high
rates of biological activity can rapidly deplete existing supplies,
and natural replenishment of dissolved oxygen from the
inexhaustible supply in the atmosphere is relatively slow.
Sources of dissolved oxygen
 The largest reservoir of oxygen in a natural setting is
the atmosphere.
 Any given quantity of the air we breathe is composed of
about 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, 0.9 percent
argon, with the remainder containing a host of other, mostly
inert, gases.
 Oxygen dissolves into water from two main sources: (1)
the
atmosphere, and (2) as a product of photosynthesis by aquatic
Dissolved oxygen dynamics in ponds
 DO is likely the most critical element of water quality
in any aquaculture operation because all aerobic
aquatic organisms need a constant supply of DO to
survive.
 Consequently, a basic understanding of the
mechanisms of oxygen production, transfer, and
depletion is necessary to aid aquaculturists in the
successful management of pond growing
influenced
systems. by pond many factors can
 managers, be
manipulated
Although some to
variables affecting DO dynamics are not
easily quality conditions
improve water successful
for
production.
Sources of dissolved oxygen
 The largest reservoir of oxygen in a natural setting is the atmosphere.
Any given quantity of the air we breathe is composed of about
21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, 0.9 percent argon,
with the remainder containing a host of other, mostly inert, gases.
 Oxygen dissolves into water from two main sources: (1) the
atmosphere, and
(2) as a product of photosynthesis by aquatic plants, algae, and
some bacteria.
 Atmospheric oxygen enters water by diffusion or turbulence
associated
with physical agitation of surface water.
 Direct diffusion is a very slow process because oxygen is only slightly
soluble in water.
 Thus, surface agitation by wind or other means that mixes air and
water
together is the most effective way to add atmospheric oxygen into
 Oxygen production by photosynthesis in aquatic plants and
organisms is the primary source of DO in pond aquaculture
systems. Photosynthesis in an aquaculture pond is fueled by light
energy from the sun. Chlorophyll-bearing aquatic organisms like
submergent and emergent plants, phytoplankton, and photosynthetic
bacteria transfer oxygen into the water column as long as light is
available.
Oxygen balance and stratification
 Dissolved oxygen in pond water is depleted by diffusion back into
the
atmosphere, respiration in aquatic organisms and plants,
and decomposition of organic material by microbes residing
largely in bottom sediments.
 The amount of oxygen required for microbial activity is
known as biochemical oxygen demand or BOD.
 On a daily basis, the amount of DO in a pond is highest during
the day
 Dissolved oxygen can also become stratified in a pond ecosystem,
and the process and degree to which this occurs is closely tied to the
same factors that drive thermal stratification dynamics.
 Increased sunlight intensity near the surface of the pond drives
greater algal photosynthetic rates which increases DO
concentration. Although oxygen can be produced deeper in the
water column, BOD usually far exceeds production.
 Thus, surface water usually contains much more DO than
water
Aeration
 Is the addition of oxygen or air containing oxygen
concentration of
culture water
 Water aeration is the process of increasing the oxygen
saturation of the water
 This also helps to produce active sludge which can be used
as fertilizers

Why oxygen is need for aquaculture??

 Dissolved oxygen is typically the first water quality variable to
limit the production in closed or semi-closed culture systems
 Aquatic species important to commercial or spot
interests require
oxygen; even photosynthetic plants need oxygen when it is dark
 On the other hand the oxygen imposed by aerobic organisms
within the system, the relatively low solubility of oxygen in
water, and the
Principles Of Aeration
 Aerating an aquaculture pond basically involves transferring gaseous
oxygen
from the large reservoir in the atmosphere into the waters of the
pond where DO concentrations have dropped to critical levels.
 In general terms, the transfer rate of atmospheric oxygen into
a pond depends on the amount of turbulence in the water, the ratio
of the surface area of the pond to its volume, and how far the
measured DO concentration deviates from the concentration at
saturation
 The deviation between atmospheric oxygen and DO is called
either the saturation deficit or surplus, depending on whether the
measured DO concentration is below or above the saturation
concentration.
 Oxygen moves into or out of water by diffusion, and the rate of
diffusion depends on the difference in gas pressure between the liquid
 Aeration facilitates this transfer by increasing the amount of low
DO content water exposed to air.
 In addition, if the thin film of water at a pond’s surface is saturated
with
DO, diffusion of this supply of oxygen to deeper layers of the pond
will be very slow without some form of agitation.
 Mixing by aeration restores or renews the saturation deficit in
the
surface film and increases the transfer rate of DO to deeper water.
 Aerators help to mix pond water which can reduce thermal
stratification and improve other water chemistry factors, most
notably DO content.
 Finally, mixing by aeration can minimize organic matter
accumulation that may increase BOD, reduce the density of algal
blooms that can lead to oxygen depletion and fish health issues,
and shift the composition of algae blooms that may lead to flavor
Principles Of
Aeration
 There is no net transfer of oxygenbetween airand
water if the water is at equilibrium with atmospheric
oxygen.
 When water is under saturated with oxygen, oxygen
will
transfer from air to water, and the reverse is true when
water is supersaturated with oxygen.
 The driving force causing oxygen transfer is the difference
in oxygen tension in the air and water.
 At equilibrium, the oxygen tension in air and water are
the same, and there is no oxygen transfer.
 The oxygendeficit (OD) and the oxygensurplus (OS) can
be
 OD = DOs - DOm
and,
OS = DOm – DOs

where DOs = theoretical oxygen saturation

concentration under given conditions; and DOm =
measured oxygen saturation concentration
 For static water, the net oxygen transfer depends
upon OD or OS, the area of contact of the
air-water interface, the temperature, and the
time of contact
(Haney 1954).
 Turbulence increases the rate of transfer by
Purpose of aeration
 To increase the dissolved oxygen concentration
 To remove gases such as nitrogen, carbon-dioxide
from water
 oxidizes dissolved metals such as iron,
hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs)

Theory of Gas transfer

Transfer of 𝑂2 into water is a three step process-
I. Transfer of 𝑂2 gas to the gas-liquid interface
II.Transfer across the gas liquid interface
 The first step is accomplished by combination diffusion
and
convective currents in the gas
 It is a rapid process
 In the second step, O2 transfers through a very thin thickness.
 Transfer across the gas-liquid interface, often referred to as
the surface film, occurs through a very thin thickness.
This is a diffusion process.
 Diffusion of oxygen through water is relatively slow.
 Laminar flow or quiescent conditions result in a well-
developed film of significant thickness
 Diffusion through the surface film is the rate-limiting
transfer
process under laminar flow or quiescent condition
 In the third step in the transfer process is movement of
oxygen in the liquid bulk
 Since diffusion of oxygen through water occurs slowly, this
transfer is accomplished largely by convection
 Oxygen transfer is a function of the surface area available
across which transfer can occur, the oxygen concentration
gradient, the magnitude of the liquid film coefficient, and
the turbulence. Mathematically these parameters can be
expressed as follows

Rate of change of Oxygen concentration is expressed as follows:

𝑑𝑐/𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾𝐿 ( 𝐴/𝑉) (𝐶𝑆 − 𝐶𝑉)
Where,
dc/dt = rate of change of oxygen concentration with respect to
time (mg/liter h)
KL = oxygen transfer coefficient
(cm/h) A = area of the gas-liquid
interface (cm2) V = volume of water
(cm3)
Cs = Saturation concentration of
oxygen in the liquid (mg/liter)
Cv = Oxygen concentration in the
liquid at any point in time (mg/liter)

To adust the value of Kla to a standard temperature of

20°C (Kla) 20 = (Kla)r 1.024 (20- T)

Factor affecting oxygen transfer rate into water
1. Differential gradient: If the water is low in
oxygen, then the transfer rate from the air is
greater than it
would be if the water was near oxygen saturation.
2. Temperature: The absolute ability of water to
hold oxygen increases as the temperature of
the water decrease
3. Impurities in the water: Dissolved substances
may affect the surface tension of the water
or the solubility of oxygen
Factors Causing Gas Super saturation
 Gas super saturation can be produced by a number of
physical and
biological processes.
 Colt (1987) identified eight mechanismsby which gas
super saturation can occur
Water Heating:
 Gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature.
 For example, the solubility of nitrogen is 18.14 and 16.36 mg/L
at 10
and 15°C, respectively (Colt 1986).
 Therefore, if saturated water at 10°C is heated without letting
the excess gas escape, the nitrogen gas then becomes
saturated.
Ice Formation
 As water cools, gas solubility increases, and negative P
values will be produced unless gas is transferred into the
water.
 As ice is formed, the dissolved gases are expelled
and
concentrated in the remaining water
 As ice forms on the surface of a body of water, gas transfer to
the atmosphere is prevented

Mixing Waters Of Different Temperatures

 When waters of different temperatures are mixed, gas
super
saturation can result
 However, relatively high water temperature differences are
required to produce significant P values.
Air Entrainment
 Gas super saturation can potentially be produced any time
that air and water are in contact at pressures greater than
atmospheric

Photosynthesis
 Algae and vascular aquatic plants produce oxygen
during the day and consume oxygen at night or during
periods of low solar intensity
 The net production is dependent on algae density, solar
radiation, and water turbidity (Romaire and Boyd 1979)
 Gas super saturation may be produced in the upper water
layers
through photosynthetic production, resulting in higher P
values
Physiological Changes.
 Gas bubbles occasionally form in the swim bladders or in the
eyes of
fish
 The sensitivity of a particular species to gas super
saturation depends on the partial pressures in these organs
(Colt 1987)

Bacterial Activity.
 Bacterial activity can increase or decrease the P
 H2S and CO2 production will have little effect, O2 and CH4
have intermediate effects and H2 can have tremendous impact
on the P
 Bacteria can seriously alter gas levels as water passes
through soil
and in the bottom sediments of water bodies
Types of Aerators
There are four basic types of aerators
 Gravity aerator
 Mechanical aerator
 Diffuser or air diffuser aerator
 Turbine

Gravity aerator
 Gravity aerators are often referred to as waterfall aerators
or
cascades.
 Utilize the energy released when water loses altitude and
increase
the air-water surface area (increase DO)
 Gravity fall is a simple way the aerate water
Man-made gravity aerators are
 Dams, Packed column aerators, Fish ladder, Inclines,
Perforated trays, screens and Spray aerators
 Man-made gravity aerators consist of weirs, splashboards,
lattices, and screens.
 Transfer efficiencies of 1.2-2.3 kg 02lkW-hr are possible
under
standard conditions (Chesness and Stephens 1971).

1. Dams
 Water moving through turbines or over the overflow
gates of a dam has kinetic energy
 This energy is dissipated by turbulence that increases
the aeration
2. Fish Ladder
 A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, fish pass or fish
steps, is a
structure on or around artificial and natural barriers (such
as dams, locks and waterfalls) to facilitate diadromous fishes'
natural migration
 Man made aerators resulting from a design for another
purpose
 It primary purpose to allow fish to pass a dam
3. Inclines
 The gravity aerators placed on an incline. An almost
infinite number of design combinations of these structures
are available.
 These structures are used for aerating flowing water
in raceways, but they may occasionally be seen aerating
pond water.
 These aerators enhance oxygen transfer by spreading the
water
out so that it flows in a thin layer.
 Corrugations, perforations and screens are used to
further enhance oxygen transfer by mixing the absorbed
oxygen in the water and by exposing new water surfaces to
the atmosphere.
Figure 11-23 illustrates examples of gravity aerators including a
simple weir (A), a weir and splashboard (B), a corrugated sheet (C),
a corrugated sheet with holes (D), a lattice (E) and a cascade (F)
4. Perforated trays and
screen
 A series of screens or perforated trays are stacked one above
another
 While water falls from screen to screen aeration is accomplished
 Spacing between screens or trays is 10-25 cm
 The number of trays is 4-10
 An 1-m tall aerator can usually aerate water to 70--80% saturation
 For a given tray spacing, the amount of oxygenation increases
with the number of trays, but usually at a decreasing rate (Boyd
and Watten 1989)
 These types of aerators are occasionally used to aerate water
entering ponds, and can also be used in fish tanks, outdoor
garden pools, and fountains.
 Dissolved oxygen concentration is increased to 52% of saturation
with a 0.6-m height of fall.
 Sometimes riser pipe is used with perforated tray or screen
Figure. A type of perforated tray
aerator
5. Spray aerators
 In a spray aerator, water is sprayed into air like a
foundation and allowed to fall back to earth
 Water is sprayed by pump & energy must be used in the
form of a pump to force the water into the air.
 Pump sprayer aerators consist of high-pressure
pumps powered by either a tractor power takeoff
(PTO) or an electric motor, and function by pumping
water under high pressure through one or more
orifices into the air through pipes or manifolds
 Spray aeration is successful in oxidizing iron and
manganese and increases the dissolved oxygen in the
water.
6. Packed column aerators
 The packed column aerator (PCA) is a highly efficient aerator
that
can be used for oxygen and nitrogen + argon removal.
 Water is pumped to the top of a column and flows downward
through
a packing media
 This media break up water flow and maximize the air-water
interface area
The SAE for such aerators ranges about 1.5-2.0 kg 02lkW-hr
(Hackney and Colt 1982).

Figure 11-26. Illustration of a packed column with air

blower.
Advantages of gravity
aerators
 Inexpensive
 Easy to construct
Mechanical Aerators
 Mechanical aeration is achieved by imparting mechanical
energy to
water in order to break it up into droplets
 Oxygen transfer is thus enhanced by increasing the air-
water interface area
 Mechanical aerators are either vertical- or horizontal-
shaft
aerators
 In vertical-shaft aerators, oxygen transfer is achieved by
exposing water droplets to the atmosphere, by turbulence of
the water, and by air entrainment
 Horizontal-shaft aerators transfer oxygen by surface
turbulence, air entrainment, and by horizontal pumping
 Mechanical aerators can be powered by either electric
Vertical Pumps
 Vertical pump aerators, also known as impeller aerators
 Vertical pump aerators consist of a submersible electric motor
with an impeller attached to its shaft
 The motor is positioned so that the shaft points vertically
upward.
 Motors range in size from less than 0.5 hp to greater
than 5 hp, with typical aquaculture units being 2 hp or less.
 Impeller design, combined with high shaft speeds of the
motor (between 1,730 and 3,450 revolutions per minute
(r/min)) throw pond water up into the air to increase gas
transfer and induce surface disturbance
 The whole assembly is attached to a float and the impeller
jets water into the air for aeration.
 Typically, the entire unit is suspended just below the surface of
the water by a float. The float must have two anchor points to
keep the unit in place and prevent rotation of the unit during
operation.
 Vertical pump aerators can also be mounted to a dock or other
fixed feature, such as a pole embedded in the pond bottom
or a tripod stand. Intake screens or cages are often installed
on the units to prevent the uptake of debris and fish into the
impeller housing.
 These aerators are manufactured in sizes ranging from 1 kW to
over 100 kW, but those used for aquaculture are seldom larger
than 3 kW (Boyd 1990)
Pump Sprayers
 A pump sprayer consists of a high-pressure pump that
discharges
water through a series of orifices or slots in a pipe manifold
 Many different orifice designs are used
 Sizes typically range from about 7.5 to 15 kW
 Pump sprayer aerators can have an attached power source or
they
can be PTO-driven
 The speed of the device can be changed according to the
speed of the engine
 These units can be operated in shallow depths, provided the
intake for
the pump is sufficiently submerged
 PTO-powered pump sprayer aerators are a popular choice
for emergency aeration operations.
 They can be quickly moved from pond to pond and operated in
shallow
depths with little concern for suspension of pond bottom
sediments and wastes.
Propeller - Diffuser Aerators
Propeller diffuser aerators, sometimes referred to as
propeller-
aspirator pumps (Boyd and Martinson 1984), consist of a rotating
hollow shaft attached to an electric motor
A diffuser and an impeller are located at one end of the shaft and
are submerged
The unit is supported at the water surface with a float assembly so
that
a hole in the opposite end of the shaft near the motor remains
above the water surface
The motor usually operates at 3,450 rpm, and the impeller
accelerates the water sufficiently to cause a pressure drop within
the hollow tube that forces atmospheric air into the tube
The air passes through the diffuser and enters the water as fine
bubbles that are mixed with the impeller
These aerators provide water circulation in addition to aeration
Propeller-diffusers are manufactured in a variety of motor sizes
from
0.37 to over 11 kW
Boyd and Martinson (1984) found that 30° was the best angle for
maximum oxygen exchange
Paddle Wheel Aerators
Paddle wheel aerators consist of a rotating hub to which a
series of
paddles are attached
The hub plus paddle assembly is called a drum, and as the drum
rotates,
water is splashed into the air for aeration
The drum assembly and drive motor are supported at the water
surface with floats, and the drum assembly on most aerators can
be raised or lowered to adjust paddle depth
In addition to aeration, paddle wheels cause horizontal
movement of the water
The paddles can be set deeper into the water to increase
water
circulation while sacrificing oxygen exchange
 Most paddle wheel aerators operate with a paddle depth of
10-15 cm and a drum rotational speed of 80-90 rpm
 Power requirements are on the order of 1 kW for each 50
cm of
drum length (Boyd and Watten 1989)
 The most common paddle wheel design is the unit
where the paddles are attached to the hub in a spiral
configuration This configuration dampens vibration
forces since paddles are continuously in contact with the
water
 Aerators fabricated with the paddles attached to the drum
in straight lines
 Paddle wheels powered by electric motors are
manufactured in sizes ranging from 0.37 kW to 7.5 kW
PTO-Driven Aerators
 Aerators powered by the PTO of farm tractors are
manufactured
for use in ponds where electricity is not available
 They are also useful in emergency situations because of
their portability. Therefore, the SOTR values for PTO-driven
aerators are more, important than the SAE values
 PTO-powered pump sprayer aerators are a popular
choice for
emergency aeration operations.
 They can be quickly moved from pond to pond and
operated in shallow depths with little concern for suspension
of pond bottom sediments and wastes.
Aeration Practices
Basically, four strategies are used to manage dissolved
oxygen in
aquaculture ponds:
(I) No supplemental aeration;
(2) emergency aeration;
(3) supplemental aeration; and
(4) Continuous aeration.
No Supplemental Aeration
If low enough stocking rates are used,
supplemental aeration is not required
Emergency Aeration
 Aerators can be used in emergency situations to prevent
occasional
DO depletions that can kill or severely stress fish
 Sick fish and highconcentrationsof ammonia,
Nightly and Continuous Aeration
 Since DO concentrations in fish ponds typically drop at night,
the
purpose of nightly aeration is to begin aeration at some fixed
time
every night well before DO concentrations fall to stressful
levels and continue aerating until photosynthesis begins to
add oxygen to the pond the next day.
 For some ponds, this may require aeration for only three or
four hours, but other ponds may need aeration all night long
 The nightly aeration prevented pond DO concentrations
from
dropping below 3 mg/L
 A major disadvantage of both nightly and continuous
aeration is the large amount of oxygen that must be
 Aquaculturists generallyagree that water circulation in
ponds is
beneficial
 Water circulation moves oxygenated water out away
from the aerator, and circulation can eliminate thermal and
DO stratification (Szyper and Lin 1990) and make the entire
pond volume habitable
 It also eliminates the danger of seasonal overturns and
overturns following a rainfall event
 The main function of a water circulator is to mix surface
water with subsurface water to eliminate stratification.
 Most water circulation devices create surface turbulence,
which provides a limited amount of aeration, which is an
added benefit but not the primary purpose
Pure Oxygen
 Pure oxygen has been applied successfully in raceway
systems both in the commercial and research sectors
 Thus far, pure oxygen does not appear to be economically
feasible for use in aquaculture ponds, because of its high cost
 Three important benefits are realized when pure oxygen is
practiced
in intensive culture
I. First, pure oxygen contactors have the unique ability to
increase the DO concentration in culture waters to 100%
saturation or greater
II. Second as pure oxygen is added to the water, dissolved
nitrogen
(DN) is forced out, thus reducing DN concentrations to or
below the saturation value for the purposes of controlling
gas bubble trauma
iii. Third, pure oxygen can greatly increase the production
capacity of a given culture system
Sources of Pure Oxygen
Pure oxygen is available from three sources:
high-pressure (compressed) oxygen gas, liquid oxygen, and on-
site generation
 In many aquaculture facilities, at least two of these sources are
used;
one is used as a backup for the other
 The most economic source will depend on power costs,
transportation charges, and the mode of operation
 High-pressure oxygen and liquid oxygen are readily
available and either may be the most economical to use in
highly industrialized areas
Compressed Oxygen Gas
 Compressed oxygen gas (98-99 % pure) is available in
metal cylinders containing 3-7 m3 (100--250 ft3) of gas at
17.6 MPa (2,550 psi) pressure
 Due to its expense, oxygen in this form is normally used as a
backup for liquid oxygen or on-site oxygen generation

Liquid Oxygen.
 Liquid oxygen (LOX) is about 98-99% pure
 It is produced on a large scale by distilling liquefied air

Oxygen Generation ( 85-95% pure)

Pure oxygen can be generated on-site using a process called
pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
PSA systems produce 0.5-10 m3 (15-400 ft3) of oxygen gas per
hour
Diffused-Air Aeration Systems
Diffused-air aeration systems use air compressors or blowers to
supply
air and diffusers, porous pipe, or other devices to release air
bubbles into the water
Pure oxygen can be used in place of atmosphericair in diffused-air
systems
In diffused-air systems, air is introduced at the bottom of a pond
or tank or at a given point in the water column, and oxygen is
transferred as the bubbles ascend through the water column
The amount of oxygen transferred depends on the number,
size and relative velocity of the ascending bubbles; the dissolved
oxygen deficit; and the water depth at which the bubbles are
released
Some common diffusers are porous diffusers (air stones),
 In practice, more air can be released through coarse
bubble diffusers, but oxygen transfer is highest for the
smallest bubble diameter.
 In addition, the greater the water depth at the point of
bubble release, the higher the oxygen transfer because the air
bubble-to- water contact time is greater
 Diffused aeration is not efficient in shallow ponds commonly
used
for fish production (depth = 1.0-1.5 m) because the contact
time of the air bubbles with the water is not great enough
for sufficient oxygen transfer
Diffuser aerators
Diffuser aerators inject air or pure oxygen into water in the form
of bubbles
Oxygen is transferred from the bubbles to the water by
diffusion across the liquid film
Some common diffusers are:
I. Pipes
II. Porous diffuser pipe
III. Porous diffusers (air stones)
IV. Venturi aerators
V. U-tube aerators
VI.Down flow bubble contact
Aerators VII.Ejector aerators
Pipes
 A pipe is placed in a water tank
 Air is pumped through the pipe
 This air forms bubbles at the tank bottom
 Bubbles rise in the liquid and causes aeration

Porous diffuser pipes

 Air is released through a porous diffuser pipes
 The diffuser pipe forms small and relatively uniform bubbles
having
large surface area
 The diffuser pipe may be made from plastic, carborundum and
wood
U-tube aerators
 The U-tube aerator consists of a u-shaped tube
 Water travels down one leg of the U and out the other
 Air or pure 𝑂_2 is injected into the water through a diffuser at
the
U-tube inlet
 The water velocity is more than the rise velocity of air bubbles
 So the air bubbles are carried with water
Down-flow bubble contactor
 Water is pumped downward through a conical hood
 Air or 𝑂2 is injected through a diffuser
 Water velocity is more than the bubble rise velocity

Ejector aerators
 The ejector aerators bring together a high pressure water
and pressurized air
 Great turbulence is created in the mixing area by share forces
and
momentum transfer

Turbine Aerators
 Consist of a propeller
 The propeller remain submerged in water
 When the propeller rotates, it circulate the water and aerate it