Department of

IT
Department of
IT
 UNIT-1
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORKS
• Computer networking refers to interconnected
computing devices that can exchange data
and share resources with each other. These
networked devices use a system of rules,
called communications protocols, to transmit
information over physical or wireless
technologies.
Why do we need Computer
Networks?
• To share computer files
• To share computer equipment(Laser printers and
large hard-disk drives can be expensive)
• To improve communication speed and
accuracy(less chance of a message being
lost)
• To reduce the cost of data transfer(telegrams)
• Verify Data Transfer(Fluctuations of costs in
foreign exchange and shares)
• High Reliability(because of hardware
failure)
 What is Communication
• Communication is defined as a process in which
more than one computer transfers information,
instructions to each other and for sharing resources.
Or in other words, communication is a process or act
in which we can send or receive data.
• Data communications (DC) is the process of using
computing and communication technologies to
transfer data from one place to another, and vice
versa. It enables the movement of electronic or
digital data between two or more nodes, regardless
of geographical location, technological medium or
data contents.
 Components
A communication system is made up of the following components:
• Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be
transmitted from one person to another. It could be a text file, an
audio file, a video file, etc.
• Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a
computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation,
etc.
• Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
• Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication
channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless
media.
• Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender),
it should be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is
meaningless.
Components
 Some examples of Protocols
• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for
dividing messages into packets on the source computer and
reassembling the received packet at the destination or
recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have
the information about the source of the message data, the
destination of the message data, the sequence in which the
message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the
message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.

• IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does

computer determine which packet belongs to which device.
IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination
computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.
 Direction of Data Flow
• The way in which data is transmitted from one device
to another device is known as transmission mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the
communication mode.
• Each communication channel has a direction
associated with it, and transmission media provide
the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is
also known as a directional mode.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
• Simplex mode
• Half-duplex mode
• Full-duplex mode
Type
s
Simplex Mode
 Simplex
• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,
i.e., the data flow in one direction.
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it
or it can receive the data but cannot send the data.
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits
the signal to the listeners but never allows them to
transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the
simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data
from the user and monitor can only be used to display
the data on the screen.
Half Duplex
 Half Duplex
• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed,
i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data as
well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the
same time.
• The entire bandwidth of the communication channel
is utilized in one direction at a time.
• In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the
error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
• A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex
mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens.
Full Duplex
 Full Duplex
• In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-
directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
• Both the stations can send and receive the message
simultaneously.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of
communication between devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is
a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.
 NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
 Network Criteria
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number
of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
Performance:
• Performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for
a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking
metrics: throughput(the amount of data moved
successfully from one place to another in a given
time period) and delay(Latency the delay between
the sender and the receiver decoding it, this is
mainly a function of the signals travel time, and
processing time at any nodes the information
traverses.). We often need more throughput and
less delay.
 Network Criteria
Reliability:
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes
a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness(robustness is commonly defined as the
capacity of the network to maintain functionality (or
connectivity) when a sequential node removal
strategy (attack) is performed.) in a catastrophe.
Security:
• Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches(information
being accessed without authorization) and data losses.
 Computer Network Components

Major computer network components:

• Computer network involves the
following components and devices (some are
optional):-
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Hub
• Switches
• Router
• Modem
• Cables and connectors
 NIC
• NIC stands for network interface card.
• NIC is a hardware component used to connect a
computer with another computer onto a network
• It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
• The MAC address or physical address is encoded on
the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE
to identify a network card uniquely.
 Types of NIC
• Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside
the motherboard. Cables and connectors are
used with wired NIC to transfer data.
• Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the
antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop
computer contains the wireless NIC.
 Hub
• A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network
connection among multiple devices. When computer
requests for some information from a network, it first
sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will
broadcast this request to the entire network. All the
devices will check whether the request belongs to them or
not. If not, the request will be dropped.

• The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth

and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the
use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more
advanced computer network components such as
Switches, Routers.
Hub
HUB
 Switch

• A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a

computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features than
Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the
data is to be transmitted or not.
• Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the
physical address present in the incoming message.
• A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like
the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be
transmitted.
• Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection
between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the
network.
Switch
 Router
• A router is a hardware device which is used to
connect a LAN with an internet connection. It
is used to receive, analyze and forward the
incoming packets to another network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of
the OSI Reference model.
• A router forwards the packet based on
the information available in the routing table.
• It determines the best path from the available
paths for the transmission of the packet.
Route
r
Route
r
 Modem
• A modem is a hardware device that allows the
computer to connect to the internet over the
existing telephone line.
• A modem is not integrated with the
motherboard rather than it is installed on the
PCI slot found on the motherboard.
• It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It
converts the digital data into an analog signal
over the telephone lines.
Modem
• Network Cables and Connectors :
• The networking devices will not work well unless
they are connected to each other which is done
via different media. Cable is one transmission
media which can transmit communication
signals.
• Twisted pair wire:
• Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used
for telephone communications and most
modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires
forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs
are twisted to provide protection against
crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs.
Coaxial cable:
• Coaxial cable is similar to TV installation cable
and it is more costly than twisted-pair cable,
however provides high data transmission speed.
Fiber - optic cable:
• Optical fiber is a high-speed cable which
transmits data via light beams (uses laser or LED
light instead of electrical pulses) in glass bound
fibers. Even though it offers higher data speed
compared to the other cables, fibre optics is very
costly making the purchase and installation at
the governmental or large enterprise level.
 Categories of Network
• A computer network can be categorized
by their size.

computer network types:

• LAN(Local Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
 LAN
LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is group of computers
a
connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such
as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built
hardware such with inexpensive as hubs,
Ethernet cables. network adapters, and
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds
of networks by three characteristics:
• Their size, (2) Their transmission technology,
and (3)Their topology.
 MAN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.

• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the

citizens and private industries.

• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other

through a telephone exchange line.

• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over
a large geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than
the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single
location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.
• . It contains a collection of machines intended for
running user (i.e., application) programs.
• These machines are called as hosts. The hosts are
connected by a communication subnet, or just
subnet for short.
• The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g.,
people's personal computers), whereas the
communication subnet is typically and
operated
owned by a telephone company or Internet
service provider.
• The job of the subnet is to carry messages from
host to host, just as the telephone system carries
words from speaker to listener.
 Types of connection
• There are different types of communications
connection in existence between two endpoints.,
Home networks, and the Internet is the one of the
most commonly used examples. Many type of devices
are and several different methods are used
connecting to these type of network architectures.
• Connecting computers to a these type of networks,
we requires some networking framework to create
the connections. The two different computer network
connection types are getting discussed in this page
are Point-to-Point Connection and multipoint
connection.
 Point-to-Point Connection
• A point-to-point connection is a direct link between
two devices such as a computer and a printer. It uses
dedicated link between the devices. The entire capacity
of the link is used for the transmission between those
two devices. Most of today’s point-to-point
connections are associated with modems and PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network) communications.
• To move from sources to destination, a packet (short
message) may follow different routes. In networking,
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data
link protocol commonly used in establishing a direct
connection between two networking nodes.
Point to point
 Multipoint Connection
• A multipoint connection is a link between three or more
devices. It is also known as Multi-drop configuration. The
networks having multipoint configuration are
called Broadcast Networks.
• In broadcast network, a message or a packet sent by
any machine is received by all other machines in a
network. The packet contains address field that specifies
the receiver.
• Upon receiving a packet, every machine checks the
address field of the packet. If the transmitted packet is for
that particular machine, it processes it; otherwise it just
ignores the packet.
• It Shares the link between devices.
Multipoint Connection
 Topolog
y
• Topology defines the structure of the network
of how all the components are interconnected
to each other.
• The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another. There are four basic
topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
Bus Topology
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long
cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and
taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device
and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices
into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact with the metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes
weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.
• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus
can support and on the distance between those taps.
• Working of Bus topology:
• Bus topology is often used when a network
installation is small, simple or temporary. On a
typical bus network the cable is just one or more
wires with no active electronics to amplify the
signal or pass it along from computer to
computer this makes a bus a passive topology.
• Only one PC at a time can send
message(BROADCASTING) therefor a
PC’s attached to a bus network can significantly
number of
affects the speed of the network. A PC must wait
until the bus is free before it can transmit.
Otherwise the bandwidth will simply get waste.
Use of Terminator:
• whenever the signals reaches the end of the wire
it bounces back and travels back up the wire.
• When a signal travels back and forth along and
exterminated bus it is called ringing.
• To stop the signal from ringing you attach
terminator at the both end of the segment.
• The terminator absorbs the electrical energy and
stop the reflections. Cable can’t be left
unterminated in a bus network.
 Advantages
• 1. The bus is simple, reliable in very small network easy to use
and easy to understand.
• 2. It is easy for installation-that is backbone cable can be laid
along the most convenient path that connects the nodes by
drop cables of various length.
• 3. The bus requires less amount of cables to connect the
computer together and is therefore less expensive than other
cabling arrangements.
• 4. It is easy to extend- (by using BNC Barrel connector) two
cables can be joined into one longer cable with a BNC barrel
connector making a longer cable and allowing more PC to join
the network.
• 5. A repeater can also be used to extend a bus- A repeater
boosts the signal and allows it to travel a longer distance. 6. If
one node fails others are not affected
 Disadvantages
1. In case of failure of the backbone cable, the whole
network will be affected.
2.Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably
because only one PC can transmit at any time resulting
in wasting a lot of bandwidth as they interrupt each
other instead of communicating.
3.It is difficult to troubleshoot faults - as bus cable break
or malfunctioning computer.
4.A cable break or loose connection also cause
reflection and bring down the whole network and
causing all the network activity to stop.
5.Difficult for reconfiguration-E.g.: Adding new devices
may therefore require modification or replacement of
the backbone.
 Mesh Topology
• Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to every other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects. To find the number of
physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected
to every other node.
• Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be
connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links.
• However, if each physical link allows communication in
both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
links by 2.
• In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need
n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.
Mesh Topology
 Advantages
• Advantages:-
➢The use of dedicated links that
guaranties connections can carry its own data load.
Thus
• eliminating the traffic problem that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
➢Mesh topology is Robust (strong) if one link
becomes unusable. It doesn’t incapacitate the entire n/w.
➢Another advantage is privacy and security when
every message sent travels along a dedicated line only the
intended recipients sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other
users from gaining access to message.
 fault identification and fault isolation easy
 Disadvantages

• ➢ As it involves a lot of connection. The total no. of

physical links and the no. of I/O ports require to
connect will be more and hence is prohibitively
expensive.
• ➢ Difficult to install and reconfigure specially as no.
of devices increases.
• ➢ Hardware required to connect each device is
highly expensive.
• ➢ The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than
the available space (walls, ceiling and floors) can
accommodate. For these reasons a mesh topology is
usually implemented in a limited fashion
 Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly
linked to one another.
• Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does
not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants
to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device .
HUB
 Advantages
• i. Addition, Moving and deletion involves only one
connection between that device and hub.
• ii. When the capacity of central hub is exceeded you
can replace it with one that has larger number of ports
to plug lines into new hub.
• iii. The center of the star network is a good place to
diagnose network faults, intelligent hub (the hub with
microprocessor) also provide for centralize monitoring
and management of network.
• iv. Single PC failures do not necessarily bring down
whole star network. The hubs can detect a network fall
and isolate the defected PC or network cable and allow
the rest of the network to continue operating.
• v. You can use several cable types in the same network
with a hub that can accommodate multiple cable types
 Disadvantages
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.
• Although a star requires far less cable than a
mesh, each node must be linked to a central
hub. For this reason, often more cabling is
required in a star than in some other topologies.
 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along
Ring Topology
Working of ring topology:
• Every PC is connected to next computer in the
ring and each transmits what it receives from the
previous PC.
• The message flows around the ring in one
direction. Since each PC retransmits what it
receives a ring is an active network. There is no
termination because there is no end to the ring
Advantages of ring topology:
• i. A ring is relatively easy to install and configure (for
fix number of devices).
• ii. Fault isolation is simplified- generally in a ring a
signal is circulating at all time if any device does not
receive a signal within the specified period. It can
issue an alarm. Alarm alerts the network operator to
the problem of its location.
• iii. To add or delete a device requires moving only
two connections.
• iv. Time to send data is known: that is package
delivery time is fixed and guaranteed because every
PC is given to the token. No one PC can monopolies
network.
• v. No data collisions.
• Disadvantages of ring:
• 1. A single node failure leads to the collapse
of the full network.
• 2. Unidirectional traffic can be disadvantage in
a simple ring. A break in the ring can disable
the entire network; using dual ring can solve
the weakness.
• 3. Expansion to the network can cause
network disruption
Hybrid Topology:
• A network can be hybrid. For example, we can
have a main star topology with each branch
• connecting several stations in a bus topology
as shown in Figure.
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that
govern data A protocol defines what
communications.
is communicated, how communicated,
it is and
when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics , timing, Sequence control,
Flow Control, Error Control, Security.
 Elements
• Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format
of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
• Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning
of each section of bits. It provides rules and norms for
understanding message
• Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics:
when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent . For example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the
receiver can only handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will
overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing data
loss, collisions and other timing related issues.
Sequence control : Sequence control ensures the proper
ordering of data packets. The main responsibility of
sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get
received, and the retransmission of lost data. Through
this mechanism the data is delivered in correct order.
Flow Control : Flow control regulates device data
delivery. It limits the sender’s data or asks the receiver if
it’s ready for more. Flow control prevents data
congestion and loss.
Error Control : Error control mechanisms detect and fix
data transmission faults. They include error detection
codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control
detects and corrects noise, interference, and other
problems to maintain data integrity.
Security : Network security safeguards data
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. which
includes encryption, authentication, access control,
and other security procedures.
 Standards
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications.
• Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or
"by regulation").
 Standards categories
• De facto: standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to
define the functionality of a new product or
technology.
• De jure: Those standards that have been
legislated by an officially recognized body are
de jure standards.
• LAYERED TASKS: We use the concept of layers in our
daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from the post office.
Below Figure shows the steps in this task
 OSI Reference
•
Model
OSI Reference Model - internationally
standardised network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open
systems, i.e. systems open for communications with
other systems.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system
is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems
to communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to show
how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.
 7-Layer OSI
Model
Layer 7 Application • Layers 1-4 relate to
Layer
Presentation
communications
Layer 6 Layer technology.
Layer 5 Session Layer • Layers 5-7 relate to user
applications.
Layer 4 Transport Layer

Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet
boundary
 Layer 7: Application
• Layer
The application layer enables the user,
whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and
support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of
distributed information services.
• Network virtual terminal. A network virtual
terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
 File transfer, access, and management. This
application allows a user to access
files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to
manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
o Mail services. This application provides the basis
for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services. This application provides
distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects
and services.
 LAYER 6:Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the
following:
o Translation. The processes (running programs) in two
systems are usually exchanging information in the form of
character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must
be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because
different computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods.
The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into
a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into
its receiver-dependent format.
Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system
must be able to ensure
Privacy
Compression. Data compression reduces the
number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.
 Layer 5: Session
• Layer
The services provided by the first three layers
(physical, data link, and network) are not sufficient for
some processes. The session layer is the network
dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems
• Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems
to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either half
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at
a time) mode.
Synchronization:
The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints,
or synChronization points, to a stream of data. For
example, if a system is sending a file
of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case,
if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523,
the only pages that need to
be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.
Pages previous to 501 need
not be resent.
 Layer 4: Transport
Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery
of the entire message. A process is an application program
running on a host
o Service-point addressing. Computers often run several
programs at the same time. For this reason, source-to-destination
delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next
but also from a specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into
transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and
to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
o Connection control. The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connectionoriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connectionoriented transport
layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets.
After all the data are transferred,
the connection is terminated.
Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is
performed end to end rather than
across a single link.
o Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for
error control. However, error control at this layer is
performed process-toprocess rather than across a
single link.
 Layer 3: Network
Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple
networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same
network (links), the network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
Logical addressing.
The physical addressing implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems.
Routing. When independent networks or links are
connected to create internetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting
devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination. One of the
functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.
 Layer 2: Data Link
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
Layer
transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical
layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the
following:
[I Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
o Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of
the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the
device that connects the network to the next one.
Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
o Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
D Access control. When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the
link at any given time.
 Layer 1:Physical layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a
bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical
and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical
layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the
devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.
o Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a
stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To
be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how
Os and Is are changed to signals).
Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits
sent each second-is also defined by the physical
layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the
duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts. o
Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not
only must use the same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the
sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
o Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned
with the connection of devices to the media. In a
point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
Physical topology. The physical topology defines how
devices are connected to
make a network.
Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the
direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
• The TCP/IP Reference Model: The TCP/IP reference
model was developed prior to OSI model. The
major design goals of this model were,
• To connect multiple networks together so that they
appear as a single network.

• Unlike OSI reference TCP/IP

model, model has only 4 layers. reference
They are,
• Host-to-Network Layer
• Internet Layer
• Transport Layer
•
• The host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of
the TCP/IP model and is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. It is also called a
network interface layer or link layer. It can be
considered as the combination of physical layer
and data link layer of the OSI model.
• The functions of this layer are −
• It defines how bits are to be encoded into optical
or electrical pulses.
• It accepts IP packets from the network layer and
encapsulates them into frames. It synchronizes the
transmission of the frames as well as the bits
making up the frames, between the sender and the
receiver.
At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does
not define any specific protocol. It supports all
the standard and proprietary protocols. A
network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a
local-area network or a wide-area network
 The internet layer defines an official packet format
and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets
where they are supposed to go.
• Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is
avoiding congestion.
• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the
internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP. Each of these protocols is described in
greater detail in later chapters
Internetworking Protocol (IP) The Internetworking
Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless
protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The term best
effort means that IP provides no error checking or
tracking.
IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and
does its best to get a transmission through to its
destination, but with no guarantees. IP transports data in
packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive
out of sequence or be duplicated. IP does not keep track
of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams
once they arrive at their destination
Address Resolution Protocol :The Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with
a physical address. On a typical physical network, such as
a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or
station address, usually imprinted on the network
interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical
address of the node when its Internet address is known.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol :

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a
host to discover its Internet address when it knows only
its physical address. It is used when a computer is
connected to a network for the first time or when a
diskless computer is booted
Internet Control Message Protocol:
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a
mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification
of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query
and error reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol :
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to
facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a
group of recipients.

The Transport Layer:

It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the
OSI transport layer.
Transmission Control Protocol: The Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications.
TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term
stream, in this context, means connection-oriented:
A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.
At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a
stream of data into smaller units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering
after receipt, together with an acknowledgment number
for the segments received.
Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP
datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each
datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission
based on sequence numbers.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol:
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
provides support for newer applications such as voice
over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that
combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
 The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User
Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do
not want TCP's sequencing or flow control and
wish to provide their own
• The Application Layer:
• The TCP/IP model does not have session or
presentation layers. On top of the transport layer is
the application layer.
• It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early
ones included virtual terminal (TELNET-TErminaL
NETwork that allow you to log into remote host),
file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP).
• the Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host
names onto their network addresses.
• NNTP(Network transfer protocol is an
application
news protocols used for transporting
usenet news articles between news servers and
for reading/posting articles by the end user
client applications),
• the protocol for moving USENET(user’s
network is a set of protocols for generating,
storing and retrieving news articles around, and
HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the
World Wide Web, and many others.
 Chapter -II
• Physical Layer : Transmission Modes
• In the Open System Interconnection(OSI) Layer
Model, the Physical Layer is dedicated to data
transmission in the network. It mainly decides
the direction of data in which the data needs to
travel to reach the receiver system or node.
• different data transmission modes based on the
direction of exchange, synchronization between
the transmitter and receiver, and the number of
bits sent simultaneously in a computer
network.
• According to the number of bits
sent simultaneously in the
network:

• Serial Communication
• Parallel Communication
 Serial Data Transmission
• The Serial data transmission mode is a mode in
which the data bits are sent serially one after
the other at a time over the transmission
channel.
• According to the synchronization between the
transmitter and the receiver
• The Synchronous transmission mode is a
mode of communication in which the bits are
sent one after another without any start/stop
bits or gaps between them. Actually, both the
sender and receiver are paced by the same
system clock. In this way, synchronization is
achieved.
• In a Synchronous mode of data transmission,
bytes are transmitted as blocks in a
continuous stream of bits. Since there is no
start and stop bits in the message block.
• Asynchronous
• The Asynchronous transmission mode is a
mode of communication in which a start and
the stop bit is introduced in the message
during transmission. The start and stop bits
ensure that the data is transmitted correctly
from the sender to the receiver.
• start bit is '0' and the end bit is '1'
• The messages are sent at irregular intervals
and only one data byte can be sent at a time.
This type of transmission mode is best suited
for short-distance data transfer.
• For Example, if there are two bytes of data,
say(10001101, 11001011) then it will be
transmitted in the mode
asynchronous follows:
as
• The data transmission mode is a
mode
Parallel in which the data bits are
parallelly at a time.sent
In other words, there is a
transmission of n-bits at the same time
simultaneously.
Parallel Mode
 Parallel Mode
• Multiple transmission lines are used in such
modes of transmission. So, multiple data bytes
can be transmitted in a single system clock.
• This mode of transmission is used when a
large amount of data has to be sent in a
shorter duration of time. It is mostly used for
short-distance communication.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• The main advantages of parallel transmission
over serial transmission are:
• it is easier to program;
• and data is sent faster.
• Although parallel transmission can transfer
data faster, it requires more transmission
channels than serial transmission
• Parallel transmission is used when:
• a large amount of data is being sent;
• the data being sent is time-sensitive;
• and the data needs to be sent quickly
• A scenario where parallel transmission is used
to send data is video streaming. When a video
is streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received
quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
• Video streaming also requires the transmission of
large volumes of data. The data being sent is
also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in
poor viewer experience
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine
send the multiple data streams over a single
and
medium. The process of combining the data
streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows
many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.
• When multiple senders try to send over a
single medium, a device called Multiplexer
divides the physical channel and allocates one
to each.
• On the other end of communication, a De-
multiplexer receives data from a single
medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
• In the 20th century, many telephone companies used
frequency-division multiplexing for long distance
connections to multiplex thousands of voice signals
through a coaxial cable system
• For shorter distances, cheaper cables were used for
various systems but they didn’t allow large
bandwidths.
• The most common example of frequency-division
multiplexing is radio and television broadcasting, in
which multiple radio signals at different frequencies
pass through the air at the same time. Another
example is cable television, in which many television
channels are carried simultaneously on a single cable.
• The FDM is an analog multiplexing that
combines analog signals.
• Frequency division multiplexing is applied when
the bandwidth of the link is greater than the
combined bandwidth of the signals to be
transmitted.
 frequency-division multiple
• Inaccess
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA),
the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands.
• A specific frequency band is given to one person,
and it will received by identifying each of the
frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in
the first generation of analog mobile phone.
• FDMA stands for Frequency Division Multiple
Access, a technology commonly used in mobile
communications. It’s an access method for the
data link layer, that uses the concepts of FDM to
basically achieve the same goal.
• 1. FDM is a physical layer multiplexing technique,
while FDMA is a data link layer access method.

• 2. Using FDM to allow multiple users to utilize

the same bandwidth is called FDMA.

• 3. FDM uses a physical multiplexer, while FDMA

does not.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing:
• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology in fiber optic communications; and,
for the high capacity communication systems
• This system uses multiplexer at transmitter to join
signals and demultiplexer to split the signals
apart, at the receiver end.
• The purpose of WDM is to combine multiple light
sources into a single light source at the multiplexer;
and, at the demultiplexer the single light is
converted into multiple light sources.
• WDM is designed to use the high data rate
capability of the fiber optic cable.
• The data rate of this cable is higher than the
metallic transmission cable’s data rate.
• Conceptually, the wavelength division
multiplexing is same as the frequency division
multiplexing, except for the transmission
through the fiber optic channels wherein the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involves optical
signals.
 Time-Division
Multiplexing
• Time division (TDM) is a
multiplexing
communications process that transmits two or
more streaming digital signals
channel. over
• In TDM, incoming signals are divided into aequal
fixed-length time slots. After multiplexing, these
common
signals are transmitted over a shared medium and
reassembled into their original format after de-
multiplexing.
Packet switching networks(Packet switching is
used for grouping data into packets for
transmission over a digital network. It's an
efficient way to handle transmissions on a
connectionless network, such as the internet) use
TDM for telecommunication links, i.e., packets are
divided into fixed lengths and assigned fixed time
slots for transmission.
Each divided signal and packet, which must be
transmitted within time slots, are
reassemble assigned complete
into signal at the
d a
destination.
• Time division multiplexing is classifieds into
two types:
• Synchronous time-division multiplexing
• Asynchronous time-division multiplexing
 Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
• Synchronous time division multiplexing can be used
for both analog and digital signals.
• In synchronous TDM, the connection of input is
connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ connections,
then a frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots – and, for
each unit, one slot is allocated – one for each
input line
• In this synchronous TDM sampling, the rate is same
for all the signals, and this sampling requires a
common clock signal at both the sender and receiver
end. In synchronous TDM, the multiplexer allocates
the same slot to each device at all times
 Asynchronous Time-Division
Multiplexing
• In asynchronous time-division multiplexing, the
sampling rate is different for different signals, and
it doesn’t require a common clock
• If the devices have nothing to transmit, then their
time slot is allocated to another device
• Designing of a commutator or de-commutator is
difficult and the bandwidth is less for time-
division multiplexing. This type of time-division
multiplexing is used in asynchronous transfer
mode networks.
 TDMA
• In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the
stations share the bandwidth of the channel in
time.
• Each station is allocated a time slot during which
it can send data. Each station transmits its data in
its assigned time slot
• The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving
synchronization between the different stations.
Each station needs to know the beginning of
its slot and the location of its slot
• This may be difficult because of propagation
delays introduced in the system if the stations
are spread over a large area.
• To compensate for the delays, we can insert
guard times. Synchronization is normally
accomplished by having some synchronization
bits (normally referred to as preamble bits) at
the beginning of each slot
• although TDMA and time-division multiplexing
(TDM) conceptually seem the same, there are
differences between them
• TDM, as, is a physical layer technique that
combines the data from slower channels
and transmits them by using a faster
channel.
• The process uses a physical multiplexer that
interleaves data units from each channel
• TDMA, on the other hand, is an
access method in the data-link layer.
• The data-link layer in each station tells its
physical layer to use the allocated time slot.
 CDMA
• CDMA differs from FDMA because only one
channel occupies the entire bandwidth of
the link.
• It differs from TDMA because all stations can
send data simultaneously; there is no time
sharing.
• Analogy
• Let us first give an analogy. CDMA simply
means communication with different codes.
For example, in a large room with many
people, two people can talk privately in
English if nobody else understands English.
• Another two people can talk in Chinese if
they are the only ones who understand
Chinese, and so on. In other words, the
common channel, the space of the room in
this case, can easily allow communication
between several couples, but in different
languages (codes).
• Idea: Let us assume we have four stations, 1,
2,3, and 4, connected to the' same channel.
The data from station 1 are d1, from station 2
are d2, and so on. The code assigned to the
first station is c1, to the second is c2, and so
on. We assume that the assigned codes have
two properties.
• 1. If we multiply each code by another, we
get 0.
• 2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4
(the number of stations).
• Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get d1.
C1. Station 2 multiplies its data by its code to
get d2 . c2 and so on
• Any station that wants to receive data from one
of the other three multiplies the data on the
channel by the code of the sender.
• For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking
to each other. Station 2 wants to hear what
station 1 is saying. It multiplies the data on the
channel by c1- the code of station 1.
• Because (cI . cI) is 4, but (c2 . cl), (c3 . cl)' and
(c4 . cI) are all Os, station 2 divides the result by
4 to get the data from station 1.
• Chips: CDMA is based on coding theory. Each
station is assigned a code, which is a
sequence of numbers called chips
 Transmission Media
• A transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the
receiver
 Guided Media
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway
by using physical links.

Features:
High Speed, Secure, Used for comparatively
shorter distances
 Twisted Pair Cable
• consists of 2 separately insulated
conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled
together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media.
• Twisted Pair is of two types
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic
applications.
• Advantages: Least expensive, Easy to install, High
speed capacity
• Disadvantages: Susceptible to external
interference, Lower capacity and performance in
comparison to STP Short distance transmission
due to attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair
• This type of cable consists of a special jacket to
block external interference. It is used in fast-data-
rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
• Advantages: Better performance at a higher data
rate in comparison to UTP Eliminates crosstalk,
comparatively faster
• Disadvantages: Comparatively difficult to install
and manufacture, More expensive, Bulky
 Coaxial Cable
• It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables.
• Advantages: High Bandwidth, Better noise Immunity,
Easy to install and expand, Inexpensive
• Disadvantages: Single cable failure can disrupt
the entire network
 Optical Fibre
Cable
• It uses the concept of reflection of light through a
core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding. It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data.
• Advantages: Increased capacity and bandwidth,
Light weight, Less signal attenuation
• Disadvantages: Difficult to install and maintain,
High cost, Fragile
 Unguided Media
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded
transmission media.
• No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.
• Features: Signal is broadcasted through air,
Less Secure, Used for larger distances
• There are 3 major types of Unguided
Media
 (i) Radio waves
• These are easy to generate and can penetrate
through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.
• Further Categorized as: (i) Terrestrial and (ii)
Satellite.
 (ii)
• It is a line ofMicrowaves
sight transmission i.e. the
sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The
distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz
– 300GHz. These are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
 (iii) Infrared
• Infrared waves are used for very short
distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents
interference between systems. Frequency
Range: 300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
 Switching
• A network is a set of connected devices.
Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the
problem of how to connect them to make one-
to- one communication possible.
• One solution is to make a point-to-point
connection between each pair of devices (a mesh
topology) or between a central device and every
other device (a star topology).
• These methods, however, are impractical and
wasteful when applied to very large
networks
• A better solution is switching.
• A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating
temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to the switch.
• In a switched network, some of these nodes are
connected to the end systems (computers or
telephones, for example). Others are used only
for routing.
• The end systems (communicating devices) are
labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the switches are
labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is
connected to multiple links
Switched network
Taxonomy of switched networks
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set
of switches connected by physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a
dedicated path made of one or more
links.
• However, each connection uses only one
dedicated channel on each link.
• Each link is normally divided into n
channels by using FDM or TDM
Three Phases(circuit-switched network )
• connection setup
• data transfer
•connection teardown
Setup Phase:
• Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a
conference call) can communicate, a dedicated circuit
(combination of channels in links) needs to be
established.
• The end systems are normally connected through
dedicated lines to the switches, so connection setup
means creating dedicated channels between the
switches.
• when system A needs to connect to system M,
it sends a setup request that includes the
address of system M, to switch I.
• Switch I finds a channel between itself
and switch IV that can be dedicated for
this purpose.
• Switch I then sends the request to switch IV,
which finds a dedicated channel between
itself and switch III. Switch III informs system
M of system A's intention at this time.
• In the next step to making a connection, an
acknowledgment from system M needs to
be sent in the opposite direction to system
A.
• Only after system A receives this
acknowledgment is the
connection established.
• Note that end-to-end addressing is
required for creating a connection between
the two end systems.
• Data Transfer Phase:
– After the establishment of the dedicated
circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer
data.
• Teardown Phase:
– When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a
signal is sent to each switch to release the
resources.
• Efficiency: It can be argued that circuit-
switched networks are not as efficient as
the other two types of networks because
resources are allocated during the entire
duration of the connection. These
resources are unavailable to other
• Delay:
– Although a circuit-switched network normally has
low efficiency, the delay in this type of network is
minimal.
– During data transfer the data are not delayed at
each switch; the resources are allocated for the
duration of the connection
 DATAGRAM NETWORKS
• In a datagram network, each packet is
treated
independently of all others.
• Even if a packet is part of a multipacket
transmission, the network treats it as
though it existed alone.
• Packets in this approach are referred to as
datagrams
• Datagram switching is normally done at the
network layer
• The switches in a datagram network
are traditionally referred to as routers
• In this example, all four packets (or datagrams)
belong to the same message, but may travel
different paths to reach their destination. This
is so because the links may be involved in
carrying packets from other sources and do
not have the necessary bandwidth available
to carry all the packets from A to X
• This approach can cause the datagrams of a
transmission to arrive at their destination
out of order with different delays between
the packets.
• Packets may also be lost or dropped because
of a lack of resources. In most protocols, it is
the responsibility of an upper-layer protocol
to reorder the datagrams or ask for lost
datagrams before passing them on to the
application.
• The datagram networks are sometimes
referred to as connectionless networks.
The term connectionless here means that
the switch (packet switch) does not keep
information about the connection state.
• There are no setup or teardown phases. Each
packet is treated the same by a switch
regardless of its source or destination.
Routing Table
• each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table
which is based on the destination address.
• The routing tables are dynamic and are
updated periodically. The destination
addresses and the corresponding forwarding
output ports are recorded in the tables.
• This is different from the table of a circuit switched
network in which each entry is created when the
setup phase is completed and deleted when the
teardown phase is over
Destination Address:
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header
that contains, among other information, the
destination address of the packet.
• When the switch receives the packet, this
destination address is examined; the routing table
is consulted to find the corresponding port
through which the packet should be forwarded.
• This address, unlike the address in a virtual-
circuit- switched network, remains the same
during the entire journey of the packet.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a datagram
network is better than that of a circuit-
switched network; resources are allocated
only when there are packets to be transferred.
• If a source sends a packet and there is a delay
of a few minutes before another packet can be
sent, the resources can be reallocated during
these minutes for other packets from other
sources.
• Delay: There may be greater delay in a datagram
network than in a virtual-circuit network.
• Although there are no setup and teardown
phases, each packet may experience a wait at
a switch before it is forwarded.
• In addition, since not all packets in a
message necessarily travel through the same
• switches, the delay is not uniform for the
packets of a message.
• The packet travels through two switches. There
are three transmission times (3T), three
propagation delays(Propagation delay is the
amount of time required for a signal to be
received after it has been sent) (slopes 3't of
the lines), and two waiting times (W1 + W2)'
We ignore the processing time in each switch.
The total delay is
• Total delay =3T + 3t + WI + W2
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-
switched network and a datagram network. It has some
characteristics of both.
• 1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup
and teardown phases in addition to the data transfer
phase.
• 2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase,
as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a
datagram network.
• 3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and
each packet carries an address in the header. However,
the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it
defines what should be the next switch and the channel
on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end
jurisdiction
• 4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets
follow the same path established during the
connection.
• 5. A virtual-circuit network is normally
implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical
layer and a datagram network in the network
layer.
• Figure shows example of a virtual-circuit network.
The network has switches that allow traffic from
sources to destinations. A source or destination
can be a computer, packet switch, bridge, or any
other device that connects other networks.
• Addressing: In a virtual-circuit network,
two types of addressing are involved:
global and local(virtual-circuit identifier).
• Global Addressing: A source or a destination
needs to have a global address-an address that
can be unique in the scope of the network or
internationally if the network is part of an
international network. However, we will see that
a global address in virtual-circuit networks is
used only to create a virtual-circuit identifier, as
discussed next.
• Virtual-Circuit Identifier: The identifier that is
actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-
circuit identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global
address, is a small number that has only
• switch scope; it is used by a frame between two
switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has
a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCl.
• Figure shows how the VCI in a data frame
changes from one switch to another. Note that a
VCI does not need to be a large number since
each switch can use its own unique set of VCls.
• Three Phases: As in a circuit-switched network, a
source and destination need to go through
three phases in a virtual-circuit network:
• setup,
• data transfer,
• and teardown.

• We first discuss the data transfer phase, which is

more straightforward; we then talk about the setup
and teardown phases.
• Data Transfer Phase:
• To transfer a frame from a source to its
destination, all switches need to have a
table entry for this virtual circuit
• switch holds four pieces of information
for each virtual circuit that is already set
up.
• We show later how the switches make their
table entries, but for the moment we assume
that each switch has a table with entries for all
active virtual circuits.
• Setup Phase: In the setup phase, a switch creates
an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose
source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B.
Two steps are required: the setup request and
the acknowledgment
• Destination B receives the setup frame, and if
it is ready to receive frames from A, it assigns
a VCI to the incoming frames that come from
A, in this case 77. This VCI lets the
destination know that the frames come from
A, and not other sources.
• Acknowledgment A special frame, called
the acknowledgment frame, completes the
entries in the switching tables.
Teardown Phase
In this phase, source A, after
sending all frames to B, sends a
special frame called a
teardown request. Destination
B responds with a teardown
confirmation frame. All
switches delete the
corresponding entry from their
tables.
Efficiency:
• resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can be
made during the setup or can be on demand during
the data transfer phase.
• In the first case, the delay for each packet is the
same; in the second case, each packet may encounter
different delays.
• There is one big advantage in a virtual-circuit network
even if resource allocation is on demand. The source
can check the availability of the resources, without
actually reserving it.
• Consider a family that wants to dine at a restaurant.
Although the restaurant may not accept reservations
(allocation of the tables is on demand), the family can
call and find out the waiting time. This can save the
family time and effort.
Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks :
• In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time
delay for setup and a one-time delay for
teardown. If resources are allocated during
the setup phase, there is no wait time for
individual packets
• The packet is traveling through two switches
(routers). There are three transmission times
(3T), three propagation times (3't), data
transfer depicted by the sloping lines, a setup
delay (which includes transmission and
propagation in two directions), and a
teardown delay (which includes transmission
and propagation in one direction). We ignore
the processing time in each switch. The total
delay time is
• Total delay = 3T+ 3't + setup delay + teardown
delay