Data Communication by

Behrouz A Forouzan, 5E
Course Outcome
CO1 Explain the basic concepts of computer networks and
different types of network models.
CO2 Discuss various elements of physical layer and different data
transmission modes.
CO3 Explain the fundamental concepts of multiplexing, transmission
media and switching.
CO4 Apply various error detection and correction methods.

CO5 Illustrate data link layer services and different media access
control.
Data Communication
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.
• Communicating devices must be part of a communication system
made up of a combination of hardware and software.
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery
 Accuracy
 Timeliness
 Jitter
Five components of data communication
 Data Representation
1. Text : Bit pattern ( 0’s and 1’s), different sets of bit patterns are
designed to represent symbols, called as code.
Eg : Unicode ( 32 bits) consists of ASCII(127 Characters)
2. Numbers : Bit patterns.
3. Image : Matrix of pixels, each pixel will be assigned with a bit
pattern.
4. Audio
5. Video
Data Flow
 Networks
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication.
• A device can also be a Router, Switch, Modem.
• Connected through Wired or wireless media.
Network Criteria:
• Performance: Measured by transit time and response time,
depends on number of factors.
Network metrics : Throughput and delay
• Reliability : Robustness
• Security : Protection
Physical Structure
 Physical Topology
• Refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.
• 4 types of topology : Mesh, Star, Bus and Ring.
 • A dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
Mesh Topology • link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• n (n – 1) physical links
• n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links
• Advantages : Traffic issues reduction,
robust, Security, fault identification and
isolation.
• Disadvantages: Bulk Cabling, ports and
wires.
• Ex : Regional telephone offices
 • Has a dedicated point-to-point link
Star topology only to a central controller, usually
called a hub.
• The controller acts as an exchanger.
• Less cabling and ports compared to
mesh.
• Advantages : Robustness.
• Disadvantages : Complete control in
the hub.
 • One long cable acts as a backbone to
link all the devices in a network.
Bus Topology • Nodes are connected to the bus cable
by drop lines and taps.
• As a signal travels along the
backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat.
• Advantages: Ease of installation.
• Disadvantages include difficult
reconnection and fault isolation.
• difficult to add new devices
 • Each device has a dedicated point-
to-point connection with only the
Ring Topology two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its
destination.
• Advantage : easy to install and
reconfigure
• Disadvantage : Unidirectional ring,
Disabled node can break the ring.
• A dual ring or a switch capable of
closing off the break
 Network Types
• Physical Structures
• Difficult to distinguish.
• Two Types : LAN and WAN
LAN(Local Area Network):
• Privately Owned, Connects some hosts in a single office, building or campus.
Ex: 2 PC’s and 1 printer, or extend throughout a company
• Each device will have unique identifier and address to identify.
• Switch will be used to interconnect network.
• A packet consist of both source and destination address.
• All devices will receive the packet, if destination address is same it’ll keep, or else
forward.
• Now SMART switch is used.
LAN Example:
WAN(Wide Area Network)
• LAN has limitation of space
• WAN has larger geographical area( Town, State and Country)
• LAN will interconnect host.
• WAN will interconnect connecting devices such as switches, routers
and modems.
• LAN is privately owned
• WAN is normally created and run by communication companies.
• 2 types of WAN
Point to point
• Connects 2 communicating devices through transmission media
(cable/air).

Switched WAN
• Network with more than 2 ends.
• Backbone of Global Communication.
• Combination of Several Point to point LAN.
InterNetwork
● When 2 or more networks are connected to one another, they form an
Internetwork or Internet.
● when an organization has 2 offices at West and East coast , LAN is used
for internal communication (i.e, within the offices).
● When geographically distant offices need to be connected, WAN is used
with Router.

West coast office R1 R2 East coast office

Routers
• Routers are networking devices
• Responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data packets
among the connected computer networks.
• When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination
address, consults its routing tables to decide the optimal route and
then transfers the packet along this route.
• Router main objective is to connect various networks.
Switches
• A network switch connects devices, (PC’s, printers, mobiles) in a
network to each other, and allows the exchange of data packets
between them.
• Switch main objective is to connect various devices in a network.
Switching

• This technique of transferring the information from one computer

network to another network is known as switching.
• Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches
• An internet is a Switched network, in which a switch connects at
least 2 links.
• 2 types of Switched Network
• Circuit switched network and Packet switched network.
Circuit Switched Network
• A dedicated connection called Circuit will be available between the
end systems.
• The Switch can only make it active or inactive.(Ex: Telephones).

SWITCH SWITCH
High capacity Line

Telephones Telephones
Packet Switched Network
• In computer networks, the communication between the 2 ends is
done in blocks of data called Packets.

• It's not continuous communication like Circuit switched network.

• There will be exchange of data packets between 2 computers.

• Here switches will both forward and store data Packets.

• Packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later.

Packet Switched Network Example

Queue

Router

End Systems
End Systems
The Internet
• “internet” is 2 or more networks that can communicate with each
other.
• Internet is composed of thousands interconnected network .
Accessing the Internet
The internet today is an Internetwork, which allows anyone to be part
of it., however needs to be physically connected to point to point WAN.
Using Telephone Networks
• Most of the residence and small businesses have telephone services,
they are connected to telephone network.
• And most of the telephone networks are connected to internet(ISP).
• So the voice line between residence and telephone centre can be
converted to point to point WAN to get Internet.
• This can be done in 2 ways
Dial up Service:
• A modem will be added to telephone line that converts data to voice.
• It uses PSTN ( Public Switched telephone network), to establish a
connection to an ISP.
• The software installed in computer will make or imitate a call to
connect to ISP
• 56 kbps Speed and low cost
Modem:
Modulation and Demodulation, between digital data of computer and
analogue signal of a phone line
Connects home network to wider network.
DSL Service
• Digital Subscriber line.
• Since the advent of the Internet the telephone companies have
upgraded to provide high speed internet.
• The DSL allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and
data.
• DSL service can be delivered simultaneously with wired telephone
service on the same telephone line since DSL uses higher
frequency bands for data.
Using Cable networks
• Since last 2 decades, Cable TV services are used instead of antennas
for TV broadcasting.
• The cable companies have been upgraded their cable networks and
connecting to networks.
• Provides a good high speed internet.
• But speed varies upon the number of neighbours connected to same
cable.
Using Wireless Network
• Recently Popular.
• Wireless WAN is used for connection.
• Ex: Wireless Broadband

Direct connection to the internet

• A large organization can itself become a local ISP.
• Leases a high speed WAN from a carrier provider and connects itself
to regional ISP.
• Ex: Universities can create a internetwork and connect to Internet
Standards and Administration
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is
useful to and adhered to by those who work with the Internet.
• There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet
standard status.
• A specification starts as Internet draft.
• An internet draft is a working document, with no official status and a
six month life time.
• A draft is also known as Request for Comment(RFC)
• RFC go through maturity levels and are categorized according to
their requirement level.
Maturity levels of RFC (Will fall into one
category in its lifetime)
1. Proposed Standards: A proposed standard is a specification that is
stable, well understood, and of sufficient interest to the Internet
community. At this level, the specification is usually tested and
implemented by several different groups.
2. Draft Standard. A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard
status after at least two successful independent and interoperable
implementations.
3. Internet Standard. A draft standard reaches Internet standard status
after demonstrations of successful implementation.
4. Historic. The historic RFCs are significant from a historical
perspective. They either have been superseded by later specifications or
have never passed the necessary maturity levels to become an Internet
standard.
5. Experimental. An RFC classified as experimental describes work
related to an experimental situation that does not affect the operation of
the Internet. Such an RFC should not be implemented in any functional
Internet service.
6. Informational. An RFC classified as informational contains general,
historical, or tutorial information related to the Internet. It is usually
written by someone in a non-Internet organization, such as a vendor.
Requirements level
RFCs are classified into five requirement levels:
• Required: An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by
all Internet systems to achieve minimum conformance. For example,
IP and ICMP are required protocols.
• Recommended: An RFC labeled recommended is not required for
minimum conformance; it is recommended because of its usefulness.
For example. FIP and TELNET are recommended protocols.
• Elective: An RFC labeled elective is not required and not
recommended. However. a system can use it for its own benefit.
• Limited Use: An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in
limited situations. Most of the experimental RFCs fall under this
category.
• Not Recommended: An RFC labeled not recommended is
inappropriate for general use. Normally a historic RFC may fall
under this category.
Internet Administration
• The Internet, with its roots primarily in the research domain, has
evolved and gained a broader user base with significant commercial
activity.
• Various groups that coordinate Internet issues have guided this
growth and development.
• ISOC (Internet Society):
ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization formed in 1992 to
provide support for the Internet standards process. ISOC accomplishes
this through maintaining and supporting other Internet administrative
bodies such as IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA
IAB (Internet Architecture Board)
• The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical advisor to the
ISOC.
• The main purposes of the IAB are to oversee the continuing
development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to serve in a technical
advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community.
• IAB accomplishes this through its two primary components, the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Research
Task Force (IRTF).
IETF( Internet Engineering Task Force)
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a forum of working
groups managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG).
• IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems and
proposing solutions to these problems.
• IETF also develops and reviews specifications intended as Internet
standards
Protocol Layering
• In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules
that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to
follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple. we may need only one simple
protocol;
• when the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task
between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each
layer, or protocol layering.
Scenarios

Maria Ann
Layer 1
Listen/talk Listen/Talk

air

First Scenario
D&C
Modularity
Replace
Separate Service
from
Implementation
Intermediate
Systems
Principles of Protocol Layering
First Principle:
• The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication,
we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite
tasks, one in each direction.
• For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk
(in the other direction).
• The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer
needs to send and receive mail.
Second Principle:
• The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is
that the two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a
plaintext letter.
• The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a cipher text.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different
layers) used in the Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported
by the services provided by one or more lower level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers
built upon the hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a
five-layer model.
Physical Layer
 Responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the
link.
 Although it is lowest level of TCP suite, the communication b/w
devices at physical level is logical, because of the hidden
transmission media.
 Transmission media does not carry, bits it carries electrical
signals.
 The bits received from data link layer are transformed and sent
through the transmission media.
 Several Protocols are there to transform bit to signal.
Data Link Layer
 Internet is made up of several LAN and WAN connected by
routers.
 ROUTERS are responsible for selecting the best route/links to
travel for data packets from host to destination.
 The data link layer is responsible for taking datagram and
moving across the link.
 Link can be Wireless LAN/WAN, Wired LAN/WAN.
 TCP/IP supports and agrees all the standard protocol that will
carry datagram through link.
 Some protocols provide error detection and correction too.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection
between the source computer and the destination computer.
• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• Several Routers will in involved between S to D.
• The network layer is responsible for host-to-host
communication and routing the packet through possible routes.
• why we need the network layer?
• We could have added the routing duty to the transport layer and
dropped this layer
• Separation of different tasks between different layers.
• Routers do not need the application and transport layer
Separating the tasks allows us to use fewer protocols on the
routers.
• Network layer has main protocol of Internet , IP(Internet
Protocol).
• IP defines format of the packet known as Datagram, structure
and format of address, also responsible for routing packets
from S to D.
• IP does not offer any flow control, error control or congestion
control services.
• If application needs any of these services it will rely on
Transport layer.
• Includes Unicast and Multicast, routing protocols.
• The routing protocol creates routing tables, does not involve in
routing.
• Some of the auxiliary protocols that help IP in delivery and routing
tasks.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) :helps IP to reponse
ems when routing a packet.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) :is other protocol
that helps IP in multitasking.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Proto col (DHCP) :helps IP to get
the network-layer address for a host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) :is a protocol that helps IP
to find the link-layer address of a host or a router
Transport Layer

• The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the
application layer, encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a
segment or a user datagram in different protocols)

• The transport layer is responsible for giving services to the

application layer: to get a message from an application program
running on the source host and deliver it to the corresponding
application program on the destination host.
• The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a
connection-oriented protocol that first establishes a logical
connection between trans port layers at two hosts before
transferring data.
• TCP provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of
the source host with the receiving data fate of the destination
host to prevent-overwhelming the destination).
• error control-(to guarantee that the segments arrive at the
destination without error and resending the corrupted ones)
• Congestion control to reduce the loss of segments due to
congestion in the network
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
• In UDP each user datagram is an independent entity without being
related to the previous or the next one.
• UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing delayed
packets. There is no error checking in UDP.
• For real-time services like computer gaming, voice or video
communication, live conferences
Application Layer
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between the two layers. However, we should
know that the communication is done through all the layers.

• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two

programs running at this layer).

• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the

World Wide Web (WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in
electronic mail (e-mail) service.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files
from one host to another.
• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are
used for accessing a site remotely.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by
an administrator to manage the Internet at global and local
levels.
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by her protocols to
find the network-layer address of a computer.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to
collect membership in a group
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• Encapsulation adds information to a packet as it travels to its
destination.
• Decapsulation reverses the process by removing the info, so a
destination device can read the original data .
Addressing
The OSI Model
• the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
• Almost three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in
the ISO.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced
in the late 1970s.
• An open system is a set f protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol;
• It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines
a part of the process of moving information across a network
OSI Versus TCP/IP
LACK OF OSI MODEL
3 main reasons
• TCP /IP was fully working when OSI Model came to picture,
replacing would cost money and time.
• Some layers in OSI Model were not fully described.
• Ex: Presentation layer and session layer.
• When tried replacing the performance was not as good as TCP/IP