Biodiversity

Conservation for
sustainable utilization

Dr Judith Mbau
OUTLINE
 Definition
 Biodiversity Conservation
 Sustainable utilization
 Approaches for conservation
 In-situ and Ex-situ conservation
A. In-situ (Protected areas and sacred forests and lakes )
1) Protected areas ( National Parks, sanctuaries and Biosphere
reserves )
 National Parks /Reserves
 sanctuaries,
 Biosphere reserves
 Criteria for setting conservation priorities
 Why establish PAs
 Challenges facing PAs
Outline contd….
B) Ex- Situ conservation
 Definition
 Approaches
 Seed banks
 Gene banks
 Longterm captive breeding
 Animal translocations
 Tissue culture banks
 Cryopreservation of gametes and embryos
 Botanical gardens
 Zoological gardens (zoos)

C) Sustainable utilization of biodiversity

SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION

 Dfn:

 The use of components of biological diversity in a

way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term
decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining
its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of
present and future generations. Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 Article 2.
In- situ Conservation
 In-situ conservation aka on site conservation is the
conservation of genetic resources in natural
populations of plant or animal species. Eg forest
genetic resources in natural populations of tree
species.
 It is the process of protecting an endangered plant
or animal species in its natural habitat, either by
protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by
defending the species from predators. Other
examples - conservation of agricultural biodiversity
in agro forestry by farmers.
 In-situ conservation is being done by declaring area
as protected area.
Advantages of in-situ conservation:

1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.

2. The life cycles of the species and their evolution progresses in a natural way.

3. Provides the required green cover and its associated benefits to our
environment.

4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.

5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.

Models of Protected areas

1. National Parks
DFN: an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife
and where activities like forestry, grazing on cultivation are not permitted
 Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed.
 The emphasis is on the preservation of a single plant or animal species.
 Ex- Nairobi N/P. Amboseli N/P, L.Nakuru N/P, Aberdare N/P, Tsavo East N/P
2. Sanctuaries
 DFN: A protected area which is reserved for the conservation of
only animals and human activities like harvesting of timber,
collecting minor forest products and private ownership rights are
allowed as long as they do not interfere with well-being of animals.
 Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic
interference is permitted, e.g., tourist activity.
 Ex .. Kisumu Impala sanctuary , L. Simbi National sanctuary (located close
to Kendu Bay, for conservation of birds), lumo community wildlife
sanctuary,
Cntd…..
3) Biosphere Reserves
DFN:
 Places that seek to reconcile both cultural and natural heritage
preservation with the people´s sustainable development. The
World Network of Biosphere Reserves gathers for the purpose of
naming new biosphere reserves, which are then approved by
UNESCO.
https://www.activesustainability.com/environment/top-10-biosphe
re-reserves/
 It is a special category of large protected areas usually more than 5000
sq.km, where human population also forms a part of the system.
Contd…..
A biosphere reserves has 3 parts
1) Core zone: -The inner zone; this is undisturbed and
legally protected area.
2) Buffer zone lies between the core and transition
zone. Some research and educational activities are
permitted here.
3) Transition zone is the outermost part of biosphere
reserves. Here cropping, forestry, recreation, fishery
and other activities are allowed.
NB: Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as ‘living
laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating
integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.
Roles of biosphere reserves
1) Reinforcing conservation of genetic resources, ecosystem and
maintenance of diversity
2) Coordinating a world wide network of protected area through
research, training and information exchange
3) Associating environmental protection and development
Biosphere Reserves in Kenya
2. Sacred forests and lakes
 Examples – the coastal Kaya forests of Kenya
 The Mijikenda Kaya Forests consist of 11 separate forest sites spread over
some 200 km along the coast containing the remains of numerous fortified
villages, known as kayas, of the Mijikenda people.
 The Kaya forest - are patches of pristine once extensive Zanzibar-
Inhambane Coastal Forest Mosaic
 Are some of the richest biodiversity centers in Eastern Africa with many
endemic species.
 The forests for many years remained protected through long standing
local community rich and environmentally friendly traditions, taboos,
beliefs and cultures.

Contd…

Kaya Chonyi

Kaya Mudzimuvia

Kaya Chivara
Kaya Jibana FR

Kaya Kambe

Kaya Kauma

Kaya Ribe

Kaya Kinondo

Kaya Fimboni / Bomu

Kaya Mzizima

Kaya Mwidzimwiru

Kaya Shonda

Kaya Gandini / Takawa / Duruma

Kaya Mtswakara
Cont…

 The main functions of biodiversity reserves are:

1) Conservation: To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species and
genetic resources.
2) Development: To promote economic development, while maintaining
cultural, social and ecological identity.
3) Scientific Research: To provide support for research related to
monitoring and education, local, national and global issues.
Cntd….
Dfn contd …………..
 Ex- situ conservation: off-site conservation
 Dfn: The preservation of components of biological diversity outside
their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic
resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a
diverse body of techniques and facilities. Such strategies include
establishment of botanical gardens, zoos, conservation strands and
gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks.
 Examples :
 In animals : -
1) Storage of embryos,
2) semen/ovule/DNA
3) captive breeding through the establishment of field gene banks etc.
 In plants : -
1) storing seeds,
2) conserving pollen and storage of plant shoots in conditions of slow or
suspended growth (in vitro conservation)
i. Seed gene bank:
 These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled temperature and
humidity for storage
 It is the easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low temperature.
 Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature) remain viable
for long durations of time.
ii. Gene bank:
 Genetic variability is also preserved by gene bank under normal growing conditions. These
are cold storages where germ plasm are kept under controlled temperature and humidity. It
is an important way of preserving the genetic resources.
iii. Cryopreservation:
 This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic parts. It is
done at very low temperature (-196°C) in liquid nitrogen. The metabolic
activities of the organisms are suspended under these low temperature, which
are later used for research purposes.
iv. Tissue culture bank:
 Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long term
culture of excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is
very popular in plant propagation as it’s a virus and disease free method
of multiplication.
v. Long term captive breeding:
 The method involves capture, maintenance and captive breeding on long
term basis of individuals of the endangered species which have lost their
habitat permanently or certain highly unfavorable conditions are present
in their habitat.
vi. Botanical gardens:
 A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are
grown. The botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment.
Most of them have started keeping exotic plants for educational and
research purposes.
vii. Animal Translocation:

Dfn : Release of animals in a new locality which come from anywhere else.
 Translocation is carried in the following cases:

1. When a species on which an animal is dependent becomes rare.

2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.

3. Due to habitat destruction and unfavorable environment conditions.

4. Increase in population in an area.

viii. Zoological Gardens:

 In zoos wild animals are maintained in captivity (rare, endangered species).

 In world there are about 800 zoos. Such zoos have about 3000 species of
vertebrates. Some zoos have undertaken captive breeding programmes.
Advantages of ex-situ
preservation
1. It is useful for declining populations of species.
2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully bred.
3. Threatened species are bred in captivity and then released in the
natural habitats.
4. Ex-situ centers offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which
is otherwise not possible.
5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on
different species.
In summary
Why establish PAs

 Economic gains - generation of revenue

 Preservation of biodiversity – plants and animals
 Recreation by the public – enjoyment
 Scientific research
 Education and awareness
 Protection of catchment areas
 Aesthetic and cultural values
 Sustainable use of resources from natural ecosystems
 Conservation of the environments – representative land scape
 Ethical obligations – all creatures have a right to live
Criteria for setting conservation priorities
 Biological criteria

1) Species richness – the number of species in a given area

2) Distinctiveness – the degree of separation of populations of species from their

nearest comparable analogue

3) Rarity – used to assign high conservation value to the least common species
or ecosystems

4) Representativeness – ensure that conservation effort in a given area include

sample of a species or ecosystem of conservation interest

5) Threats – resources facing greater threats are considered to be of higher

priority than those facing least threats

6) Function – the role a species plays in an ecosystems determines its

conservation value, eg keystone species have greater conservation value.
Challenges facing PAs
 Protected areas can be effective for conserving biodiversity, however
some threatened species of plants and animals are not included in
any protected area

 Many protected areas are under-resourced or poorly managed

 Lack of regional and global framework for managing protected areas

as a coherent network rather than as isolated habitat islands

 Encroachment due to rapidly growing human population

 Poaching and illegal live trade of species

 Inadequate implementation of policies and enforcement of laws on
biodiversity conservation

 Blockage of corridors – both habitat and migratory corridors through:

• Land use change – development of large-scale agriculture and real
estates

• Development of transportation infrastructure such as roads and

railway

• Land adjudication and privatization

• Inadequate enforcement of existing policies and legislations e.g.
Environmental Management Coordination Act (EMCA 1999) with
respect to wetlands and riparian ecosystems.
Challenges contd…

 Climate change and global warming

 Pollution
 Knowledge gaps eg Inadequate data on the status, trends, or
functional importance
 Fire outbreaks
 Habitat degradation – charcoal burning, growing of marijuana, illegal
logging etc
Challenges facing Biosphere
reserves
 Erosion of Indigenous knowledge on biodiversity conservation

 Unfavorable policy and legal environments for biodiversity

conservation

 Lack/inadequate enforcement of existing policies and legislations

governing Biosphere reserves

 Lack of/non-commitment to regional and global framework and

consensus on biodiversity conservation - lack of political good will
Sustainable utilization of biodiversity

1) Eco-tourism
2) Game / farming and ranching
3) Conservancies
 ECO-TOURISM

 Dfn:-
 The practice of touring natural habitats in a manner meant to minimize ecological
impact – also known as responsible travel to natural habitats
 Tourism to areas of ecological interest, especially to support conservation efforts
and observe wildlife;

 BENEFITS / ADVANTAGES
 Increases appreciation of local cultures and biodiversity
 Increases opportunities of local communities in decision making
 Enhances education for both the traveler and local communities
 Increased support for local conservation efforts
 Enhances implementation of sustainable benefits to local communities
 Provides the much needed revenue for the protection of wildlife -in parks, reserves,
ranches and conservancies
 Provision of viable economic development alternatives for local communities
BENEFITS / ADVANTAGES contd….

 Promotes recycling, energy efficiency and water conservation

 Inspires communities to come up with their own conservancies

 Promotes local tourism

 Leads to infrastructural development

 Generation of revenue for the government

 Promotes environmental rehabilitation – e.g. Haller park, wild waters

Challenges /disadvantages

 Destruction of nature in quest for establishment of resorts/hotels

 Exploitation of local communities and tribes

 Caging of endangered species illegally to attract tourists

 Moral decay especially in coastal beaches, dressing codes , substance use

and abuse

 Human trafficking in some parks

 Pollution and climate change due to burning of fossil fuels

 Threat to indigenous culture

 Lead to habituation of animals – animal change their natural behavioral traits

Major eco-tourist destinations in Kenya

 Maasai Mara National Reserve Amboseli National Reserve

Tsavo National Park

Nairobi National Park
L Nakuru N/P Hell’s Gate N. P

L. Naivasha N/P
Mt Kenya N/P
 GAME/WILDLIFE FARMING & RANCHING

 Dfn :
 Game farming and game ranching involve the raising of native and
non-native wildlife animals for a variety of products, including meat,
hides, feathers and etc.
 Game farming involves intensive, small-pasture production of wild
animals; while game ranching involves extensive, wide-ranging
production.
 Wildlife farming refers to the raising of non-domesticated animals in
an agricultural setting to produce whole living animals (to keep as
pets ) and commodities such as food , traditional medicine and fiber
 Domestication of wild species has been particularly popular in the
West African sub-region where bushmeat is a most important dietary
item.
Some species commonly farmed in Kenya &
Africa

 Crocodiles
 Guinea fowls
 Ostriches
 Chameleons
 Butterflies
 Tortoise
 Rodents – giant rat and grass cutter rat ( West Africa)
 Snail farming
Advantages of Game / wildlife
farming
 Provide viable complementary or alternative sources of animal protein
 Reduces pressure on wild populations
 Animals can be sold to generate revenue
 Creates employment
 Food source - from animals kept by farmers
 Economic gain to land owners - Other products such as meat and hides -
sold for income
 Wildlife based industries such as tourism and other products are a major
foreign currency earner contributing to the national economy
 Wild animals possess several added advantages over domesticated
species in terms of physiological and ecological adaptations to the African
environment, disease tolerance and productivity.
Advantages Contd….

 Medicinal purposes, eg; the neem tree is used to manufacture

antibiotics, aloe vera is used for treating skin diseases.
 Research purposes. The animals and plants in the farms can be used
by research institutions.
 Product diversification- the products may be improved, altered or
changed.
 It protects certain species in danger of extinction due to their high
demands like use as food and medical purposes.
Challenges /concerns
 Poaching may increase, giving rise to uncontrollable killing of wild
native species because of the market value of game farm and game
ranch animals.
 Official sanction of trade in wild animal parts may increase the
demand for parts from other species, including those already
threatened or endangered.
 Overgrazing and over browsing may occur because of confinement.
 The migration of native wild animals may be disrupted by large
farm ranches.
 Large tracts of public lands may become privatized or become
shooting reserves, thus depriving native wildlife of their natural
habitat.
 Competing and predatory species may be eliminated from the
habitat
Challenges /concerns contd…..
 Risky animals. Some animals may harm those incharge and
even tourists thus instilling fear.
 Pest problems. Some of the wildlife species may bring pests
that were not there before thus causing problems to other
species and even people.
 Disease introduction. Since the new species are introduced to
an area, they may come along with new diseases hence
affecting other species.
 Competition and hybridization with native wildlife
 Allelopathic effects. The plants may produce substances that
prevent the growth and survival of other plant species.
WILDLFE CONSERVANCIES
 Community conservancy, has great potential to support biodiversity
conservation, poverty eradication and conflict mitigation
 can be established by “any person or community who own land on which
wildlife inhabits”.
 It is “a recognized land use, making it an attractive land use option for
communities and landowners as it offers improved land and resource rights
and access to real incentives”
 Conservancies can be grouped into three types:
 1) Private conservancies,
 2) Group conservancies, and
 3) Community conservancies, according to their ownership types (KWCA 2016).
 Community conservation emphasizes the idea that local community
members are the practitioners of natural resource conservation, and
empowers community members with rights and responsibilities for the
proper stewardship of the PAs.
 Kenya has over 160 conservancies across the country
 Advantages of conservancies
 Institutions and governance
 Community can self-organize, enabling elective and accountable leadership, with Annual General
Meetings for all members to attend.
 Guaranteed payments
 Landowners and their families benefit directly from income. No other activity provides as much
income to as many people as conservancies.
 Legal grazing for cattle
 Many operational conservancies allow managed grazing of landowner members’ cattle, at agreed times
of year and agreed numbers, with a fine system for illegal grazing.
 Multiple land uses
 Unlike other land uses, conservancies are compatible with two or three simultaneous land uses at the
same time. They can protect wildlife and land, plus provide grass for cattle and store carbon thereby
potentially earning carbon credits.
 Land management
 No intensive farming practice disintegrating the fertility of the land, no over-grazing and soil erosion
caused by too many cattle and no commercial development.
 Contd….

 Diversified tourism products

 Rather than competition to the Reserves, conservancies diversify the tourism products, adopting low
volume, often eco-rated and socially conscious tourism, with complementary products such as walking
safaris and night drives.
 Local employment
 Staff working in camps and conservancies is drawn from the local community. The tourism sector
provides both skilled and unskilled work, thereby employing people with different levels of education
 Boost to local economy
 Tourists visit cultural villages and enjoy entertainment by the local communities, as well as buy beadwork
and other locally produced curio items. Tourist operators hire vehicles, purchase water, buy food from the
local markets and hire casual labour, to serve the needs of tourists, providing more income for many more
families and communities.
 Infrastructure development
 Conservancies develop the road network, river crossings and water sources to aid the functioning of the
conservancy.
Contd…….
 Philanthropy and social investment
 Charitable foundations and tourism operators raise funds to establish the conservancies and
undertake social community projects.
 Enhance safety and security
 Daily patrols by scouts and the back up and support from the county and national state security,
ensure the areas surrounding conservancies are safe for tourists, local traders, the community and
wildlife.
 Contribute to the country’s economy
 Conservancies currently pay tax on income generated and therefore contribute to funding the state
parks and reserves, providing a direct .Further, conservancies currently pay tax on land rent
payments paid and sometimes even on donations for conservation projects.
 Protecting the countries wildlife and habitats
 Conservancies create safe dispersal areas, wet season pastures, and migratory corridors, breeding
and feeding areas for migratory and resident wild animals. This increase in space, habitats and
natural resources largely ensures a continuous landscape to protect a greater range of biodiversity
and currently is undertaken at little financial cost to County or State governments. Together with the
Reserve, conservancies are maintaining a global heritage for us and our children’s children.
Challenges Facing conservancies
1) Overgrazing by large numbers of livestock herds increase pressure on
pastures.
2) Conflicts between communities and wild animals. Conservancies have
expanded into the territories of wild animals and, as a result, animals
cross into the conservancies to eat crops or even livestock. Some animals
are killed in retaliation by local people, especially when the local
community is suffering from climatic threats, such as drought.
3) Lack of systematic monitoring and evaluation of conservancies. Unlike
national parks, conservancies in Kenya still do not conduct periodic
monitoring and evaluations due mainly to financial, human resources and
technical constraints.
4) Some conservancies are prone to business speculation. In many cases,
investors have dominated the process that established the conservancy,
so the management paradigm may be focused on profit maximization
rather than conservation and community wellbeing.