INTRODUCTION

TO STATISTICS
 STATISTICS

It is the branch of mathematics that deals

with collecting, organizing, analyzing,
interpreting, and presenting data. In simple
terms, it helps us make sense of numbers
and information so we can make better
decisions.
 USES OF STATISTICS IN
EVERYDAY LIFE:
1.Decision-Making –
People use statistics to 2. Health and Medicine –
choose the best option, Doctors and researchers
like comparing prices, use statistics to analyze
checking reviews, or patient data, test new
weighing risks. medicines, and track
• Example: Choosing the diseases.
best phone based on • Example: Knowing the
ratings and user success rate of a
satisfaction. treatment.
 USES OF STATISTICS IN
EVERYDAY LIFE:
3.Business and Marketing
4.Education – Teachers
– Companies use statistics to
and schools use statistics to
study customer preferences,
evaluate student
sales trends, and market
performance and improve
demand.
• Example: A store teaching strategies.
• Example: Analyzing test
deciding which product to
scores to find which
stock more based on
topics students struggle
sales data.
with.
 USES OF STATISTICS IN
EVERYDAY
5.Government and
LIFE:
6.Daily Life Choices –
Society – Statistics guide Individuals use statistics
public policies, population without realizing it—like
planning, and budgeting. checking the weather
• Example: Census data is forecast (based on
used to plan schools, probability and statistics) or
hospitals, and budgeting household
transportation. expenses.

.👉 STATISTICS IS EVERYWHERE—IT HELPS US UNDERSTAND

INFORMATION, SPOT PATTERNS, AND MAKE SMARTER
 PURPOSE OF STATISTICS IS TO UNDERSTAND
INFORMATION AND MAKE BETTER DECISIONS BY
WORKING WITH DATA.
1.To collect data – Gathering information in an
organized way.
2.To summarize data – Turning large amounts of data
into understandable forms (tables, graphs, averages).
3.To analyze data – Finding patterns, trends, and
relationships.
4.To interpret results – Giving meaning to the data so
we can draw conclusions.
5.To support decision-making – Using data to make
informed and fair choices.
 TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF
1. STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics – This deals with collecting,
organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in a clear
way.
•Examples: tables, charts, averages (mean, median, mode),
percentages.
•Purpose: To describe what the data shows.

2. Inferential Statistics – This involves analyzing data from

a sample to make conclusions or predictions about a
larger population.
•Examples: surveys, hypothesis testing, probability, predictions.
 TERMS IN STATISTICS
Population
• The entire group of individuals, items, or data that you
want to study.
• It is usually too large to study completely.
• Example: All the students in your school.
Sample
• A small part of the population chosen to represent the
whole group.
• It is used because studying the entire population is often
difficult or impossible.
• Example: 50 students selected from your school to
answer a survey.
 TERMS IN STATISTICS
Parameter
• A numerical value that describes a characteristic of a
population.
• Since it’s about the whole population, it is usually fixed
but unknown (because we rarely study everyone).
• Example: The average height of all students in your
school.
Statistic
• A numerical value that describes a characteristic of a
sample.
• It is used to estimate the parameter of the population.
• Example: The average height of 50 sampled students
from your school.
 TERMS
Primary Data
IN STATISTICS
• Data that is collected first-hand by the researcher for a
specific purpose.
• It is original and fresh.
• Examples:
⚬ Survey responses you collected yourself.
⚬ Measurements you took in an experiment.
⚬ Interviews you conducted.
Secondary Data
• Data that is already collected by someone else and is used
again for analysis.
• It is second-hand information.
• Examples:
⚬ Census reports.
⚬ Books, journals, or articles.
⚬ Online databases or government statistics.
 TERMS IN STATISTICS
Constant
• A value that is fixed and does not change in a given context.
• It is the same for all members of the population or sample.
• Examples in statistics:
⚬ The number of months in a year (12).
⚬ The passing score set at 75% in an exam.
⚬ A fixed tax rate (if unchanged).
Variable
• A characteristic or attribute that can take on different values
among individuals in a population or sample.
• Variables are what we measure, record, and analyze in
statistics.
• Examples in statistics:
⚬ Age of students (varies: 12, 13, 14, …).
⚬ Height of basketball players.
EXAMPLES OF CONSTANTS AS OBSERVABLE
CHARACTERISTICS IN A GROUP

SCHOOL UNIFORM COLOR – ALL STUDENTS IN THE SAME

SCHOOL WEAR THE SAME UNIFORM.
NATIONALITY – A GROUP OF CITIZENS FROM THE SAME COUNTRY
SHARE THE SAME NATIONALITY.
COMPANY NAME – EMPLOYEES WORKING IN THE SAME COMPANY
SHARE THE SAME EMPLOYER.
RELIGION – MEMBERS OF THE SAME CHURCH OR RELIGIOUS
GROUP SHARE THE SAME FAITH.
CLASS SECTION – STUDENTS IN THE SAME SECTION BELONG TO
ONE GROUP (E.G., “GRADE 9 – SECTION A”).
 TYPES OF
VARIABLES
1. Quantitative (Numerical) Variables
• Represent numbers that can be counted or
measured.
• Can be expressed in numbers and used for
calculations.
• Subtypes:
⚬ Discrete: Countable values (usually whole
numbers)
￭ Example: Number of students in a class,
number of cars.
⚬ Continuous: Can take any value within a range
￭ Example: Height, weight, temperature, time.
 TYPES OF
VARIABLES
2. Qualitative (Categorical) Variables
• Represent categories or qualities, not numbers.
• Cannot be measured numerically but can be counted
in groups.
• Subtypes:
⚬ Nominal: Categories with no order
￭ Example: Gender (male/female), blood type
(A, B, AB, O).
⚬ Ordinal: Categories with a rank or order
￭ Example: Educational level (primary,
secondary, tertiary), satisfaction rating (low,
medium, high).
EXAMPLES
 EXPERIMENTAL
CLASSIFICATION OF
VARIABLES
1. Independent Variable (IV)
• The variable that the researcher manipulates or
changes to see its effect.
• It is the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
• Example:
⚬ Amount of fertilizer given to plants (to see effect
on growth).
⚬ Study time of students (to see effect on test
scores).
 EXPERIMENTAL
CLASSIFICATION OF
VARIABLES
2. Dependent Variable (DV)
• The variable that responds or changes because of
the independent variable.
• It is the effect being measured.
• Example:
⚬ Growth of plants (depends on fertilizer).
⚬ Test scores of students (depends on study time).
 EXPERIMENTAL
CLASSIFICATION OF
VARIABLES
3. Controlled (or Constant) Variables
• Variables that are kept constant so they do not affect
the outcome of the experiment.
• Ensures the relationship between IV and DV is clear.
• Example:
⚬ Same type of plant, same soil, same amount of
water.
⚬ Same test environment, same test paper for all
students.
 EXPERIMENTAL
CLASSIFICATION OF
VARIABLES
4. Extraneous (or Intervening) Variables
• Variables other than the IV that might affect the DV if
not controlled.
• They can confuse the results of an experiment.
• Example:
⚬ Weather conditions affecting plant growth.
⚬ Noise or distractions affecting student test
scores.
EXAMPLES
 IN STATISTICS, THE LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENT DESCRIBE HOW DATA IS
MEASURED, CATEGORIZED, OR
SCALED, WHICH DETERMINES THE TYPES
OF ANALYSIS YOU CAN PERFORM. THERE
ARE FOUR MAIN LEVELS:
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Nominal Level
• Data are categories with no specific order.
• Only used for labeling or naming.
• Example:
⚬ Gender (male, female)
⚬ Blood type (A, B, AB, O)
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

2. Ordinal Level
• Data are categories with a specific order, but
differences between ranks are not precisely
measurable.
• Shows ranking or position.
• Example:
⚬ Class rank (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
⚬ Satisfaction level (low, medium, high)
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

3. Interval Level
• Numeric data where differences are meaningful, but
there is no true zero.
• Can add or subtract values, but ratios are not
meaningful.
• Example:
⚬ Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit
⚬ IQ scores
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

4. Ratio Level
• Numeric data with a true zero, allowing for all
mathematical operations, including ratios.
• Example:
⚬ Weight, height, age, income
⚬ Number of books, distance
EXAMPLES
 SAMPLING

It is the process of selecting a subset of

individuals, items, or observations from a
larger group (population) so that by
studying the sample, we can make
inferences about the whole population.
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLING?

• Practicality – studying an entire population is often

too costly, time-consuming, or impossible.
• Accuracy – a well-chosen sample can represent the
population closely.
• Efficiency – saves time, money, and effort.
 RANDOM(PROBABILITY)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Random sampling techniques are methods

used to select a representative sample
from a population so that every individual
has an equal chance of being chosen.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
(EVERY MEMBER HAS A
KNOWN CHANCE OF
• Simple Random Sampling – every member has equal
chance. SELECTION)
• Systematic Sampling – select every k-th member.
• Stratified Sampling – population divided into groups
(strata), then sample from each.
• Cluster Sampling – population divided into clusters,
randomly select clusters, then survey all (or some)
within them.
 NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES

Non-random sampling techniques are

methods where samples are selected based
on the researcher’s judgment or
convenience, so not every individual has an
equal chance of being chosen.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
(NOT EVERY MEMBER HAS A
CHANCE OF SELECTION)
• Convenience Sampling – whoever is easiest to reach.
• Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling – based on
researcher’s judgment.
• Quota Sampling – ensure certain categories have
fixed numbers.
• Snowball Sampling – existing participants recruit
others.
 To be
continued…