Anatomy & Physiology
January 2021
Integumentary System
Integumentary System
The integumentary system consists
of the skin, hair, nails, the
subcutaneous tissue below the
skin, and assorted glands
Skin Functions
Protection from injury
Protection against infection
Regulates body
temperature
Regulates water loss
Chemical synthesis
Sensory perception
Types of Membranes
Serous Membranes
Line body cavities that have no
opening to the outside
Secrete a watery fluid called
serous fluid that lubricates
surfaces
Mucous Membranes
Line cavities and tubes that
open to the outside
Synovial Membranes
Form the inner lining of joint
cavities
Secrete a thick fluid called
synovial fluid
Cutaneous Membrane – also
known as skin
Skin Layers and
Attachment Layer
Epidermis
Covers internal
+ external
surfaces of body
Dermis
Inner layer –
Contains
accessory skin
structures
Hypodermis or
subcutaneous
layer
Attaches the
skin to
underlying
organs & tissues
Thin skin vs. Thick skin
Thin - 1-2 mm on most of the body and 0.5 mm
in eyelids – Hairy; Covers all parts of the body
except palms, soles
Thick - up to 6 mm thick on palms of hands and
soles of feet; Hairless; Covers palms, and soles
Epidermal Cell Types
Keratinocytes - 90 % of
epidermal cells are keratinized
contains keratin (fibrous protein)
protects and waterproofs the skin
Melanocytes - 8% of the
epidermal cells produces melanin
contributes to skin color and
absorbs UV light
Langerhans cells - Arise from
red bone marrow and migrate to
the epidermis -Constitute small
portion of epidermal cells -
Participate in immune responses
Easily damaged by UV light
Merkel cells - Least numerous
of the epidermal cells Found in
the deepest layer of the
epidermis-Along with tactile discs,
they function in sensation of touch
Epidermal Layers
Stratum corneum - nuclei and
organelles are destroyed by
lysosomes and the cells fill with
keratin
Stratum lucidum - only found in the
palms and soles of feet 3-5 layers
of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes -
Dense packed intermediate
filaments Thick plasma membranes
Stratum granulosum - cells start to
become keritanized --Secretes lipid-
rich secretion that acts as a water
sealant
Stratum spinosum - 8-10 layers of
keratinocytes
skin both strength and flexibility
Stratum basale - Also referred to as
stratum germinatum -where new
Growth of Epidermis
Newly formed cells in the stratum basale
undergo keratinazation as they are
pushed to the surface and accumulate
more keratin during the process
Then they undergo apoptosis or death
Eventually they slough off and are
replaced
The process takes about 4 weeks
Rate of cell division in the stratum
basale increases during injury
Dermis
Second deepest part of the
skin
Composed mainly of
connective tissues (collagen
and elastic fibers)
Papillary Layer – Surface area
is increased due to
projections called dermal
papillae which contains
capillaries or tactile
receptors -Epidermal ridges
conforms to the dermal
papillae
Reticular Layer -Contains hair
follicles, nerves, sebaceous
Hypodermis
(Subcutaneous) Attaches the skin to
underlying organs and tissues
Not part of the skin - lies below the
dermis
Contains connective tissue and
adipose tissues (subcutaneous fat) for
insulation
Infants and elderly have less of this
than adults and are therefore more
Skin Color
Skin Color
Genetic Factors – Skin pigmentation
All humans have the same number of
melanocytes
How much melanin they produce is
controlled by several genes
Lack of pigment is called albinism
Environmental Factors - Exposure to
sunlight
Volume of Blood – Hemoglobin in blood
Skin Pigments –
Melanin
Located mostly in epidermis
Two types of melanin:
eumelanin which is brownish
black and pheomelanin which
is reddish yellow
Fair-skinned people have more
pheomelanin and dark skinned
people have more eumelanin
Environmental Factors
Affect Melanin
Production
UV light increases enzyme activity in
melansomes – increased melanin
production
A tan = amount of melanin increases +
darkness of melanin
Eumelanin = protection from UV
radiation but pheomelin breaks down
with too much UV
Too much UV radiation may cause skin
cancer
Other Skin Pigments
Carotene = yellow -orange
pigment
precurser of Vitamin A – important
for vision
Found in Stratum corneum and
fatty areas of dermis and
hypodermal layer
Hemoblobin = oxygen carrying
pigment in red blood cells
Skin Markings
friction ridges: markings on fingertips
characteristic of primates - allow us to
manipulate objects more easily-
fingerprints are friction ridge skin
impressions
flexion lines: on flexor surfaces of digits,
palms, wrists, elbows etc.- skin is
tightly bound to deep fascia at these
points
freckles: flat melanized patches vary
with heredity or exposure to sun
moles: elevated patch of melanized
Aging
Skin
• In our 20s, the effects of aging begin to be visible in
the skin.
• Stem cell activity declines: skin thin, repair difficult
• Epidermal dendritic cells decrease: reduced immune
response
• Vitamin D3 production declines: calcium absorption
declines and brittle bones
• Glandular activity declines: skin dries, body can
overheat
• Blood supply to dermis declines: tend to feel cold
• Hair follicles die or produce thinner hair
Skin Derivatives
During embryonic
development thousands of
small groups of epidermal
cells from stratum basale
push down into dermis to
form hair follicles and glands
Functions – Hair & Nails
Functions of Hair
Hair on the head protects scalp from injury
and sunlight
Eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes
Nostril and ear hairs protect from foreign
particles
Help in sensing light touch due to the touch
receptors associated with the hair root
plexuses.
Functions of the Nails
Grasping objects
Manipulating objects
Protects ends of digits from trauma
Hair
Anatomy
Shaft: portion of hair that projects from skin
surface
Root: portion of hair deep to the shaft
penetrating the dermis
•Has 3 layers:
medulla
cortex
cuticle
Base of the hair follicle
•Bulb: houses the papilla which contains the
blood vessels that nourishes the growing
hair follicle.
•Matrix: responsible for hair growth and
produces new hair
Arrector pili: smooth muscle
•Extends from the dermis to the side of hair
follicle.
Hair root plexus - dendrites of neurons which
are sensitive to touch
Hair
Features
& Texture
About 100,000 hairs are on the scalp
Almost every part of body is covered with hair
except palms of hands, soles of feet, sides of
fingers and toes, lips and parts of genitals
Hair shafts differ in size, shape, and color. In the
eyebrows they are short and stiff while on the
scalp they are longer and more flexible. Over
the rest of the body they are fine and nearly
invisible
Oval shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair,
Flat or ribbon-like hair shafts produce curly or
kinky
hair
Round hair shafts produce straight hair.
Roughly 5 million hairs cover the body of an
average individual
Hair Growth
Hair follicles grow in repeated cycles.
One cycle can be broken down into three
phases.
Anagen - Growth Phase
Catagen – Transitional Phase
Telogen - Resting Phase
Each hair passes through the phases
independent of the neighboring hairs
Skin Glands
Sudoriferous - sweat glands
Eccrine sweat glands -
Secretes cooling sweat
Appocrine sweat glands -
during emotional
stress/excitement
Sebaceous - oil glands –
Acne - inflammation of
sebaceous gland ducts
Ceruminous - modified sweat
glands of the external ear
that produce ear wax
Nails
Made of tightly packed, hard, keratinized
epidermal cells
Consist of:
Nail body: portion of the nail that is visible-
Free edge: part that extends past the distal
end of the digit
Nail root: portion buried in a fold of skin
Lunula: means little moon - Crescent
shaped area of the nail
Hyponychium: secures the nail to the
fingertip -Thickened stratum corneum
Eponychium or cuticle: narrow band of
epidermis-Growth of nails is in the nail
matrix.
Skin
Receptors
Heat
Cold
Light
pressure
Heavy
Pressure
Pain
Skin Imbalances
Skin Leisons
Skin Infections
Viral as cold sores, herpes simplex, warts
(HPV)
Bacterial as bioles, carbuncles,
inflammmation of hair follicles and subaceous
glands. Impetigo
Fungal as athletes food, Tinea
Contact Dermatitis
Irritant Dermatitis as soaps, detergents,
shampoo
Allergic Dermatitis as poison ivy, poison oak,
Genetic
Disorders
Psoriasis
chronic, noninfectious skin
disease
skin becomes dry and scaly, often
with pustules and many varieties
stratum corneum gets thick as
dead cells accumulate
often triggered by trauma,
infection , hormonal changes or
stress
Vitiligo – a autoimmune
pigmentation disorder where
melanocytes in the epidermis are
destroyed eg Michael Jackson
Skin
cancer
Types of Skin Cancer
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Spread uncommon, very
curable if found early
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Occurs parts exposed to
the sun
Types of Skin Cancer
(cont.)
Malignant Melanoma
Most common in southern
hemisphere where the
ozone layer is thin.
Deadly if not caught early!!
Skin Cancer
Very common
ABCD
Asymmetry
Borders
Color
Diameter
Skin Cancer
Prevention
Use SPF 15 minimum.
Wear hats and shirts
with sleeves.
Wear sunglasses to
protect eyes from UV.
Avoid tanning beds
Skeletal System
Skeletal System
Functions
Support & shape to body
Protection of internal
organs
Movement in union with
muscles
Storage of minerals
(calcium, phosphorus) &
lipids
Blood cell production
The Skeletal System
Know the Skeletal Anatomy
Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Surface Anatomy of the bone
By diagram, normal X-ray, CT and
MRI
Structure/function of joints,
muscle and ligament attachments
Including range of motion
Human
Skeleton
206 Bones
Axial skeleton: (80
bones) in skull,
vertebrae, ribs,
sternum, hyoid bone
Appendicular
Skeleton: (126
bones)- upper &
lower extremities
plus two girdles
Half of bones in
hands & feet
Axial
Skeleton
(80)
Skull
Ossicles of the
middle ear
Hyoid bone
Thorax or
chest
Vertebral
column
Appendicular
Skeleton
(126)
Upper Extremity (64)
Shoulder Girdle
Arms
Hands
Lower Extremity (62)
Pelvic Girdle
Legs
Feet
Types of Bone
Long bones: longer than they are wide;
shaft & 2 ends (e.g.: bones of arms &
legs,except wrist, ankle & patella)
Short bones: roughly cube-shaped (e.g.:
ankle & wrist bones)
Sesamoid bones: short bones within
tendons (e.g.: patella)
Flat bones: thin, flat & often curved
(e.g.,: sternum, scapulae, ribs & most
skullbones)
Irregular bones: odd shapes; don't fit into
Types of Vertebrae
Cevical (7)
Atlas
Axis
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar (5)
Cervical Vertebrae
• Atlas – 1st; supports head
• Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn head
Thoracic Vertebrae
•long
spinous
processes
• rib facets
Lumbar Vertebrae
• large bodies
• thick, short
spinous
processes
Joints
Ball & Socket
Pivot
Saddle
Hinge
Elipsoid
(Condyloid)
Plane or Gliding
- vertebrae
Bones – Cellular &
Physiology
Cross section
structures
Cellular
composition
Bone marrow
Cartilage
Fractures
X-ray, CT or MRI
(A) Preoperative X-ray. (B) (CT) scan showing the lateral central collapse of the right tibial platform of ~2 cm. (C) Preoperative
(MRI) scan showing the lateral tibial plateau fracture and the complete disruption of the medial collateral ligment. (D)
Postoperative X-ray images showing the anatomical reduction of the right lateral tibial plateau fracture and the flat joint surface.
Bone Cells
Osteoblasts – bone forming cells synthesize and secrete
unmineralized ground substance and are found in areas
of high metabolism within the bone
Osteocytes – mature bone cells made from osteoblasts
that have made bone tissue around themselves. They
maintain healthy bone tissue by secreting enzymes and
controlling the bone mineral content; they also control
the calcium release from the bone tissue to the blood.
Osteogenic cells respond to traumas, such as fractures,
by giving rise to bone-forming cells and bone-destroying
cells
Osteoclasts – bone absorbing cell – large cells that break
down bone tissue – important to growth, healing,
remodeling
Bone lining cells - made from osteoblasts along the
surface of most bones in an adult. Bone-lining cells are
thought to regulate the movement of calcium and
phosphate into and out of the bone
Bone
Structure
Compact
Bone
Outer Layer
Haversian
System
Spongy Bone
Ends of long
bones
Cartilage
Red and Yellow
Bone Marrow
The formation of blood cells,
(hematopoiesis), takes place mainly in
the red marrow of the bones.
In infants, red marrow is found in the
bone cavities. With age, it is largely
replaced by yellow marrow for fat
storage.
In adults, red marrow is limited to the
spongy bone in the skull, ribs, sternum,
clavicles, vertebrae and pelvis. Red
marrow functions in the formation of red
blood cells, white blood cells and blood
Cartilage –
Characteristics
Mostly water; no blood
vessels or nerves
Tough, resilient
New cartilage forms from
chondroblasts
Heal poorly
Types of Skeletal
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber
matrix- most abundant type- found in articular
(movable joint) cartilages, costal cartilages
(connect ribs tosternum), respiratory
cartilages (in larynx & upper respiratory
passageways) & nasal cartilages
Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline
cartilage, more elastic fibers (very flexible) –
found in external ear & epiglottis (larynx
covering)
Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with
thick collagen fibers; highly compressible with
great tensile strength- found in menisci of
Fractures of the Bone
Know fractures based on diagrams or by x-ray
recognition
Bone Repair Sequence
Injury – broken blood vessels,
hematoma
Invasion of blood vessels & generalized
cells (2-3 days)
Fibroblasts develop (1 week)
Chondroblasts develop
Callus forms (4 weeks)
Remodeling with osteoclasts (8 weeks)
Disease/Injury Levels
Osteoarthritis
Osteoporosis
Fractures (via pictures and x-rays)
Disc herniation
Scoliosis
ACL and MCL injuries
Muscular System
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle Function:
Stabilizing joints
Maintaining posture
Producing movement
Moving substances within the body
Stabilizing body position and regulating
organ volume
Producing heat– muscle contraction
generates 85% of the body’s heat
Characteristics of
Muscle Tissue
Excitability- receive and respond
to stimuli
Contractility- ability to shorten
and thicken
Extensibility- ability to stretch
Elasticity- ability to return to its
original shape after contraction or
extension
Types of Muscle
Skeletal
Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle
Muscle
On hollow organs,
Attached to
Location glands and blood Heart
bone
vessels
Heart
Move the Compression of tubes
Function contraction to
whole body & ducts
propel blood
Multiple,
Nucleus Single, central Central & single
peripheral
Control voluntary involuntary involuntary
Striations yes no yes
Cell Shape Cylindrical Spindle-shaped Branched
Types of Muscle
Skeletal Muscles
Nearly 650 muscles are attached to the
skeleton. See muscle list for competitions.
Skeletal muscles- work in pairs: one muscle
moves the bone in one direction and the other
moves it back again.
Most muscles- extend from one bone across a
joint to another bone with one bone being
more stationary than another in a given
movement.
Muscle movement- bends the skeleton at
moveable joints.
Tendons - made of dense fibrous connective
tissue shaped like heavy cords anchor muscles
firmly to bone.
Tendon injury- though very strong and secure
Skeletal Muscles
origin - Attachment to the more stationary
bone by tendon closest to the body or muscle
head or proximal
insertion - attachment to the more moveable
bone by tendon at the distal end
During movement, the origin remains
stationary and the insertion moves.
The force producing the bending is always a
pull of contraction. Reversing the direction is
produced by the contraction of a different set
of muscles.
As one group of muscles contracts, the other
group stretches and then they reverse
actions.
Front
Back
Skeletal
Muscle
Anatomy
Each muscle- has thousands of muscle
fibers in a bundle running from origin to
insertion bound together by connective
tissue through which run blood vessels and
nerves.
Each muscle fiber - contains many nuclei, an
extensive endoplasmic reticulum or
sarcoplasmic reticulum, many thick and thin
myofibrils running lengthwise the entire
Sarcomere
sacromere -The basic functional
unit of the muscle fiber consists of
the array of thick and thin
filaments between two Z disks.
thick filaments - with myosin
(protein) molecules
thin filaments - with actin (protein)
molecules plus smaller amounts of
troponin and tropomysin.
striations -of dark A bands and
light I bands.
A bands- are bisected by the H
zone with the M line or band
running through the center of this
H zone.
I bands- are bisected by the Z disk
or line.
Skeletal
muscle
1.Bone
2.Perimysiu
m
3.Blood
vessel
4.Muscle
fiber
5.Fascicle
6.Endomysi
um
7.Epimysiu
m
8.Tendon
Sliding-Filament Model
Thick filaments, - myosin
molecules contain a globular
subunit, the myosin head, which
has binding sites for the actin
molecules of the thin filaments
and ATP.
Activating the muscle fiber causes
the myosin heads to bind to actin
molecules pulling the short
filament a short distance past the
thick filaments.
Linkages break and reform (using
ATP energy) further along the
thick filaments.
Ratchet-like action pulls the thin
filaments past the thick filaments
in a.
Muscle Contraction
As the muscle contracts -
the width of the I bands
and H zones decrease
causing the Z disks to
come closer together, but
there is no change in the
width of the A band
because the thick
filaments do not move.
As the muscle relaxes or
stretches - the width of
the I bands separate as
the thin filaments move
apart but the thick
filaments still do not
move.
Muscle and Tendon
Injuries
Strains – injuries from overexertion or
trauma which involve stretching or
tearing of muscle fibers. They often are
accompanied by pain and inflammation
of the muscle and tendon.
Sprain - the injury near a joint and
involves a ligament
Cramps – painful muscle spasms or
involuntary twitches.
Stress-induced muscle tension – may
cause back pain and headaches.
Muscular Disorders
Poliomyelitis – viral infection of the nerves that
control skeletal muscle movement.
Muscular Dystrophies – most common caused by
mutation of gene for the protein dystrophin
which helps in attaching and organizing the
filaments in the sacromere. Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy and Becker muscular dystrophy are
the two most common types. The gene for
dystrophin is on the X chromosome so the
disorder is sex-linked.
Myasthenia Gravis – autoimmune disease
affecting the neuromuscular junction. affecting
the ability of the impulse to cause the muscle
contraction. Administering an inhibitor of
acetylcholinesterase can temporarily restore
contractibility.
Effects of Exercise
on Muscular System
Exercise helps muscles become more effective and
efficient.
Tendons will become thicker and stronger
High intensity exercise for short duration produces
strength, size and power gains in muscles
Low intensity exercise for long durations will give
endurance benefits
Trained muscles have better tone or state of readiness
to respond
Exercise promotes good posture enabling muscles to
work effectively and helps prevent injury
