UNIT-2
Contents:
Relational Database Design by ER- and EER-to-Relational Mapping.
The Relational Data Model and Relational Database Constraints.
Basic SQL
More SQL: Complex Queries, Triggers, Views
Relational Algebra
Relational Database Design by ER- and EER-to-
Relational Mapping.
1. Relational Database Design Using ER-to-Relational Mapping
2. Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
ER-TO- RELATIONAL MAPPING ALGORITHM
Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types STRONG ENTITY
Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types WEAK ENTITY
Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types 1 1
R
Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types. 1 N
R
M N
Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types. R
Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes. MULTI-VALUED
Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types. 1 N
R 3
1
EER-TO- RELATIONAL MAPPING ALGORITHM
Step 8: Mapping Specialization or Generalization
Step 8 A: Multiple relations-Superclass and subclasses
Step 8 B: Multiple relations-Subclass relations only
Step 8 C: Single relation with one type attribute
Step 8 D: Single relation with multiple type attributes
Step 9: Mapping of Union Types (Categories).
Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types.
For each regular (strong) entity type E in the ER schema, create a relation R that
includes all the simple attributes of E.
Choose one of the key attributes of E as the primary key for R.
If the chosen key of E is composite, the set of simple attributes that form it will together
form the primary key of R.
Example: We create the relations EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT in
the relational schema corresponding to the regular entities in the ER diagram.
SSN, DNUMBER, and PNUMBER are the primary keys for the relations EMPLOYEE,
DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT as shown.
Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types
For each weak entity type W in the ER schema with owner entity type E, create a relation R &
include all simple attributes (or simple components of composite attributes) of W as attributes of
R.
Also, include as foreign key attributes of R the primary key attribute(s) of the relation(s) that
correspond to the owner entity type(s).
Example: Create the relation DEPENDENT in this step to correspond to the weak
entity type DEPENDENT.
Include the primary key SSN of the EMPLOYEE relation as a foreign key attribute of
DEPENDENT (renamed to ESSN).
The primary key of the DEPENDENT relation is the combination {ESSN, DEPENDENT_NAME}
because DEPENDENT_NAME is the partial key of DEPENDENT.
Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types
For each binary 1:1 relationship type R in the ER schema, identify the relations S and T that
correspond to the entity types participating in R.
There are three possible approaches:
1. Foreign Key ( 2 relations) approach:
Example: 1:1 relation MANAGES is mapped by choosing the participating entity type DEPARTMENT to
serve in the role of S, because its participation in the MANAGES relationship type is total.
2. Merged relation (1 relation) option:
3. Cross-reference or relationship relation ( 3 relations) option:
Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.
For each regular binary 1:N relationship type R, identify the relation S that represent
the participating entity type at the N-side of the relationship type.
Include as foreign key in S the primary key of the relation T that represents the other
entity type participating in R.
Example: 1:N relationship types WORKS_FOR, CONTROLS, and SUPERVISION
in the figure.
For WORKS_FOR we include the primary key DNUMBER of the DEPARTMENT
relation as foreign key in the EMPLOYEE relation and call it DNO.
Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types.
For each regular binary M:N relationship type R, create a new relation S to
represent R. This is a relationship relation.
Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations that
represent the participating entity types; their combination will form the primary
key of S.
Example: The M:N relationship type WORKS_ON from the ER diagram is mapped
by creating a relation WORKS_ON in the relational database schema.
The primary keys of the PROJECT and EMPLOYEE relations are included as
foreign keys in WORKS_ON and renamed PNO and ESSN, respectively.
Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.
For each multivalued attribute A, create a new relation R.
This relation R will include an attribute corresponding to A, plus the primary key attribute K-as a
foreign key in R-of the relation that represents the entity type of relationship type that has A as
an attribute.
The primary key of R is the combination of A and K. If the multivalued attribute is composite, we
include its simple components.
Example: The relation DEPT_LOCATIONS is created.
The attribute DLOCATION represents the multivalued attribute LOCATIONS of DEPARTMENT,
while DNUMBER-as foreign key-represents the primary key of the DEPARTMENT relation.
The primary key of R is the combination of {DNUMBER, DLOCATION}.
Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types.
For each n-ary relationship type R, where n>2, create a new relationship S to represent R.
Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations that represent the
participating entity types.
Also include any simple attributes of the n-ary relationship type (or simple components of
composite attributes) as attributes of S.
Example: The relationship type SUPPLY in the ER on the next slide.
This can be mapped to the relation SUPPLY shown in the relational schema, whose primary
key is the combination of the three foreign keys {SNAME, PARTNO, PROJNAME}
Figure 1 Result of mapping the COMPANY ER schema into a
relational database schema.
FIGURE : TERNARY RELATIONSHIP: SUPPLY
Mapping the n-ary relationship type SUPPLY
Summary of Mapping constructs and constraints
Mapping of Generalization and Specialization
Hierarchies
to a Relational Schema
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
STEP8: MAPPING SPECIALIZATION OR
GENERALIZATION.
Convert each specialization with m subclasses{S1, S2,….,Sm}
and generalized superclass C, where the primary attributes of
C are {k,a1,…an} and k is the () key, into relational schemas
using one of the four following options:
Option 8A: Multiple relations-Superclass and subclasses
Option 8B: Multiple relations-Subclass relations only
Option 8C: Single relation with one type attribute
Option 8D: Single relation with multiple type attributes
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
OPTION 8A: MULTIPLE RELATIONS-SUPERCLASS AND
SUBCLASSES
Create a relation L for C with attributes Attrs(L) = {k,a1,…an} and PK(L) = k.
Create a relation Li for each subclass Si, 1 < i < m, with the attributes
Attrs(Li) = {k} U {attributes of Si} and PK(Li)=k.
This option works for any specialization (total or partial, disjoint of over-lapping).
Figure 1: EER diagram notation for:
an attribute-defined specialization on Job-Type.
Figure 2:(a)
Mapping the EER schema in Figure 1 using option 8A.
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
OPTION 8B: MULTIPLE RELATIONS-SUBCLASS RELATIONS ONLY
Create a relation Li for each subclass Si, 1 < i < m, with the attributes
Attr(Li) = {attributes of Si} U {k,a1…,an} and PK(Li) = k.
This option only works for a specialization whose subclasses are total (every
entity in the superclass must belong to (at least) one of the subclasses).
FIGURE 2: Generalization.
(b) Generalizing CAR and TRUCK into the superclass VEHICLE.
Figure 2.1:
(b) Mapping the EER schema in Figure 2 using option 8B.
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
(contd.)
OPTION 8C: SINGLE RELATION WITH ONE TYPE ATTRIBUTE
Create a single relation L with attributes
Attrs(L) = {k,a1,…an} U {attributes of S1} U…U {attributes of Sm} U {t} and
PK(L) = k.
The attribute t is called a type (or discriminating) attribute that indicates the
subclass to which each tuple belongs.
FIGURE 3: EER diagram notation for :
an attribute-defined specialization on Job Type.
Figure 3.1:
(c) Mapping the EER schema in Figure 3 using option 8C.
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
(contd.)
OPTION 8D: SINGLE RELATION WITH MULTIPLE TYPE
ATTRIBUTES
Create a single relation schema L with attributes Attrs(L) = {k,a1,…an} U
{attributes of S1} U…U {attributes of Sm} U {t1, t2,…,tm} and PK(L) = k.
Each ti, 1 < I < m, is a Boolean type attribute indicating whether a tuple
belongs to the subclass Si.
FIGURE 4: EER diagram notation for an
overlapping (non-disjoint) specialization.
FIGURE 4.1:
(d) Mapping Figure 4 using option 8D with Boolean type fields Mflag and
Pflag.
Mapping EER Model Constructs to Relations
(contd.)
STEP 9: MAPPING OF UNION TYPES (CATEGORIES).
For mapping a category whose defining superclass have different keys, it is
customary to specify a new key attribute, called a surrogate key, when
creating a relation to correspond to the category.
In the example below we can create a relation OWNER to correspond to the
OWNER category and include any attributes of the category in this relation.
The primary key of the OWNER relation is the surrogate key, which we
called OwnerId.
Union or Category
• A Union is a collection of super classes that acts as a union between objects
of different entity types.
• Instances of the subclass will inherit the attributes of only one of the
superclass, depending on the union that it belongs to.
• Each instance of the subclass belongs to one superclass not all of the
superclass.
FIGURE 6: Two categories (union types):
OWNER and REGISTERED_VEHICLE.
FIGURE 6.1: Mapping the EER categories (union types) in Figure 6 to relations.
Definitions:
• Key Attribute: A key in DBMS is an attribute or a set of attributes
that help to uniquely identify a tuple (or row) in a relation (or
table).
• Primary Key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each
row/record in a database table. Primary keys must contain unique
values. A primary key column cannot have NULL values.
• Foreign keys are the columns of a table that points to the primary
key of another table. Or
• A foreign key is a column or group of columns in a relational
database table that provides a link between data in two tables.
