NAME : ANUSHKA
CLASS : B. Tech (Civil
Engineering)
Semester : 2nd
Roll No. : 17335
College : UIET, MDU
Submitted to:
Mr. Rajesh
SIMPLE STRESS & STRAIN
1.1 LOAD
Load is defined as the set of external forces
acting on a mechanism or engineering structure
which arise from service conditions in which the
components work
Common loads in engineering applications are
tension and compression
Tension:- Direct pull. Eg:Force present in lifting
hoist
Compression:- Direct push. Eg:- Force acting on
the pillar of a building
Sign convention followed: Tensile forces are
positive and compressive negative
1.1.1TYPES OF LOAD
There are a number of different ways in
which load can be applied to a member.
Typical loading types are:
A) Dead/ Static load- Non fluctuating
forces generally caused by gravity
B) Live load- Load due to dynamic effect.
Load exerted by a lorry on a bridge
C) Impact load or shock load- Due to
sudden blows
D) Fatigue or fluctuating or alternating
loads: Magnitude and sign of the forces
changing with time
1.2 STRESS
When a material is subjected to an external
force, a resisting force is set up within the
component, this internal resistance force
per unit area is called stress. SI unit is
N/m²(Pa). 1kPa=1000Pa, 1MPa=10^6 Pa, 1
Gpa=10^9Pa, 1 Terra Pascal=10^12 Pa
In engineering applications, we use the
the original cross section area of the
specimen
and it is known as conventional stress or
Engineering stress
1.3 STRAIN
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is
some change of dimension of the body. The ratio of change
of dimension of the body to its original dimension is known
as strain
Strain is a dimensionless quantity
Strain may be:- a) Tensile strain b) Compressive strain c)
Volumetric strain d) Shear strain
Tensile strain- Ratio of increase in length to original length
of the body when it is subjected to a pull force
Compressive strain- Ratio of decrease in length to original
length of the body when it is subjected to a push force
Volumetric strain- Ratio of change of volume of the body
to the original volume
Shear strain-Strain due to shear stress
1.4 TYPE OF STRESSES
1.4.1TYPES OF DIRECT
STRESS
Direct stress may be normal stress or shear
stress
Normal stress (σ) is the stress which acts in
direction perpendicular to the area. Normal
stress is further classified into tensile stress
Tensile stress is the stress induced in a body,
when it is subjected to two equal and opposite
pulls (tensile forces) as a result of which there is
a tendency in increase in length
It acts normal to the area and pulls on the area
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
Consider a bar subjected to a tensile force
P at its ends. Let
A= Cross sectional area of the body
L=Original length of the body
dL= Increase in length of the body due to
its pull P
σ= Stress induced in the body
e= Tensile strain
Consider a section X-X which divides the
body into two halves
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
The left part of the section x-x, will be in
equilibrium if P=R (Resisting force).
Similarly the right part of the section x-x
will be in equilibrium if P=R (Resisting
force)
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
Tensile stress (σ)= Resisting force/ Cross sectional
area= Applied force/Cross sectional area=P/A
Tensile strain= Increase in length/Original length= dL/L
Compressive stress:- Stress induced in a body, when
subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as a
result of which there is a tendency of decrease in
length of the body
It acts normal to the area and it pushes on the area
In some cases the loading situation is such that the
stress will vary across any given section. In such
cases the stress at any given point is given by
σ= Lt ΔA 0 ΔP/ ΔA= dP/dA= derivative of force w.r.t
area
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Compressive stress)
Compressive stress=Resisting force/ cross sectional area=
Applied force/ cross sectional area
Compressive strain= Decrease in length/ Original length= -dL/L
Sign convention for direct stress and strain:- Tensile stresses
and strains are considered positive in sense producing an
increase in length. Compressive stresses and strains are
considered negative in sense producing decrease in length
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
Shear stress :- Stress Induced in a body,
when subjected to two equal and opposite
forces which are acting tangentially across
the resisting section as a result of which
the body tends to shear off across that
section
Consider a rectangular block of height h,
length L and width unity. Let the bottom
face AB of the block be fixed to the surface
as shown. Let P be the tangential force
applied along top face CD of the block. For
the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB
will offer a tangential reaction force R which
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
Consider a section X-X cut parallel to the applied force
which splits rectangle into two parts
For the upper part to be in equilibrium; Applied force
P=Resisting force R
For the lower part to be in equilibrium; Applied force
P=Resisting force R
Hence, shear stress τ= Resisting force/Resisting area=P/L
x 1=P/L
Shear stress is tangential to the area on which it acts
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
As the face AB is fixed, the rectangular section
ABCD will be distorted to ABC1D1, such that new
vertical face AD1 makes an angle φ with the initial
face AD
Angle φ is called shear strain. As φ is very small,
φ=tan φ=DD1/AD=dl/h
Hence shear strain=dl/h
1.5 ELASTICITY & ELASTIC
LIMIT
The property of a body by virtue of which it undergoes
deformation when subjected to an external force and
regains its original configuration (size and shape) upon the
removal of the deforming external force is called elasticity.
The stress corresponding to the limiting value of external
force upto and within which the deformation disappears
completely upon the removal of external force is called
elastic limit
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original,
unloaded dimensions when load is removed.
If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the
elastic limit, the material loses to some extent its property
of elasticity. If now the force is removed, the material will
not return to its original shape and size and there will be a
residual deformation in the material
1.6 HOOKE’S LAW & ELASTIC
MODULI
Hooke’s law states that: “ When a body is
loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
proportional to strain developed” or “Within
the elastic limit the ratio of stress applied
to strain developed is a constant”
The constant is known as Modulus of
elasticity or Elastic modulus or Young’s
modulus
Mathematically within elastic limit
Stress/Strain=σ/e=E
σ= P/A; e =ΔL/L
E=PL/A Δ L
1.7 HOOKE’S LAW & ELASTIC
MODULI
Young's modulus (E) is generally assumed
to be the same in tension or compression
and for most of engineering applications
has a high numerical value. Typically,
E=210 x 10^9 N/m² (=210 GPa) for steel
Modulus of rigidity, G= τ/φ= Shear stress/
shear strain
Factor of safety= Ultimate
stress/Permissible stress
In most engineering applications strains
donot often exceed 0.003 so that the
assumption that deformations are small in
relation to orinal dimensions is generally
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
(TENSILE TEST)
Standard tensile test involves subjecting a
circular bar of uniform cross section to a
gradually increasing tensile load until the
failure occurs
Tensile test is carried out to compare the
strengths of various materials
Change in length of a selected gauge
length of bar is recorded by extensometers
A graph is plotted with load vs extension or
stress vs strain
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
(TENSILE TEST)
HOW STRESS- STRAIN CURVE
DRAWN
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
(TENSILE TEST DIAGRAM)
A Limit of proportionality; It is the point where the linear
nature of the stress strain graph ceases
B Elastic limit; It is the limiting point for the condition that
material behaves elastically, but hooke's law does not
apply . For most practical purposes it can be often assumed
that limit of proportionality and elastic limits are the same
Beyond the elastic limits, there will be some permanent
deformation or permanent set when the load is removed
C (Upper Yield point), D (Lower yield point) Points after
which strain increases without correspondingly high
increase in load or stress
E Ultimate or maximum tensile stress; Point where the
necking starts
F Fracture point
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
A) 1-Dimensional case (due to pull or push or
shear force)
σ=Ee
B) 2-Dimensional case
Consider a body of length L, width B and height H.
Let the body be subjected to an axial load. Due to
this axial load, there is a deformation along the
length of the body. This strain corresponding to this
deformation is called longitudinal strain.
Similarly there are deformations along directions
perpendicular to line of application of fore. The
strains corresponding to these deformations are
called lateral strains
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Longitudinal strain is always of opposite
sign of that of lateral strain. Ie if the
longitudinal strain is tensile, lateral strains
are compressive and vice versa
Every longitudinal strain is accompanied
by lateral strains in orthogonal directions
Ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain
is called Poisson’s ratio (μ); Mathematically,
μ=-Lateral strain/Longitudinal strain
Consider a rectangular figure ABCD
subjected a stress in σx direction and in σ y
direction
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Strain along x direction due to σx= σ x/E
Strain along x direction due to σ y=-μ x σy/E
Total strain in x direction ex= σ x/E - μ x
σy/E
Similarly total strain in y direction, ey= σ
y/E - μ x σx/E
In the above equation tensile stresses are
considered as positive and compressive
stresses as negative
C) 3 Dimensional case:-
Consider a 3 D body subjected to 3
orthogonal normal stresses in x,y and z
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Strain along x direction due to σx= σ x/E
Strain along x direction due to σ y=-μ x σy/E
Strain along x direction due to σ z=-μ x σz/E
Total strain in x direction ex= σ x/E - μ x
(σy/E + σz/E )
Similarly total strain in y direction, ey= σ
y/E - μ x (σxE + σz/E )
Similarly total strain in z direction, ez= σ
z/E - μ x (σxE + σy/E )
1.10 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
VARYING CROSS SECTION
Consider a bar of different lengths and of different
diameters (and hence of different cross sectional
areas) as shown below. Let this bar be subjected to an
axial load P.
The total change in length will be obtained by adding
the changes in length of individual sections
Total stress in section 1: σ1=E1 x ΔL1/L1
σ1 x L1/E1=ΔL1
σ1=P/A1; Hence ΔL1=PL1/A1E1
Similarly, ΔL2=PL2/A2E2; ΔL3=PL3/A3E3
1.10 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
VARYING CROSS SECTION
Hence total elongation ΔL=Px (L1/A1E1+L2/A2E2 +
L3/A3E3)
If the Young’s modulus of different sections are the same,
E1=E2=E3=E; Hence ΔL=P/Ex (L1/A1+L2/A2 + L3/A3)
When a number of loads are acting on a body, the resulting
strain, according to principle of superposition, will be the
algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads
While using this principle for an elastic body which is
subjected to a number of direct forces (tensile or
compressive) at different sections along the length of the
body, first the free body diagram of individual section is
drawn. Then the deformation of each section is calculated
and the total deformation is equal to the algebraic sum of
deformations of individual sections
1.11 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY
TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD
Consider a bar uniformly tapering from a
diameter D1 at one end to a diameter D2 at
the other end
Let
P Axial load acting on the bar
L Length of bar
E Young’s modulus of the material
1. 11 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY
TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD
Consider an infinitesimal element of thickness dx,
diameter Dx at a distance x from face with diameter D1.
Deformation of the element d(Δx)= P x dx/ (Ax E)
Ax=π/4 x Dx²; Dx= D1 - (D1 – D2)/L x x
Let (D1-D2)/L=k; Then Dx= D1-kx
d(ΔLx)= 4 x P x dx/(π x (D1-kx)² x E)
Integrating from x=0 to x=L 4PL/(πED1D2)
Let D1-kx=λ; then dx= -(d λ/k)
When x=0, λ=D1; When x=L, λ=D2
1.12 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY
TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR
1.13 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
A bar, made up of two or more bars of
equal lengths but of different materials
rigidly fixed with each other and behaving
as one unit for elongation and shortening
when subjected to axial loads is called
composite bar.
Consider a composite bar as shown below
Let
P Applied load
L Length of bar
A1 Area of cross section of Inner member
A2 Cross sectional area of Outer member
1.13 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
Strain developed in the outer member=
Strain developed in the inner member
σ1/E1 = σ2/E2
Total load (P)= Load in the inner member
(P1) + Load in the outer member (P2)
σ1 x A1 + σ2 x A2= P
Solving above two equations, we get the
values of σ1, σ2 & e1 and e2
1.14 STRESS & ELONGN. PRODUCED
IN A BAR DUE TO ITS SELF WEIGHT
Consider a bar of length L, area of cross section A rigidly
fixed at one end. Let ρ be the density of the material.
Consider an infinitesimal element of thickness dy at a
distance y from the bottom of the bar.
The force acting on the element considered= weight of
the portion below it=ρAgy
1.14 STRESS & ELONGN. PRODUCED
IN A BAR DUE TO ITS SELF WEIGHT
Tensile stress developed= Force acting on
the element/Area of cross section= ρgy.
From the above equation, it is clear that the
maximum stress at the section where y=L,
ie at the fixed end (ρgL) and minimum
stress is at the free end(=0)
Elongation due to self weight
1.15 STRESS IN BAR DUE TO
ROTATION
1.15 STRESS IN BAR DUE TO
ROTATION
1.16 THERMAL STRESS
Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to
change in temperature. Thermal stresses are set up in a
body, when the temperature of the body is raised or
lowered and the body is restricted from expanding or
contracting
Consider a body which is heated to a certain temperature
Let
L= Original length of the body
Δ T=Rise in temp
E=Young's modulus
α=Coefficient of linear expansion
dL= Extension of rod due to rise of temp
If the rod is free to expand, Thermal strain developed
et= Δ L/L=α x Δ T
1.16 THERMAL STRESS
The extension of the rod, Δ L= L x α x Δ T
If the body is restricted from expanding
freely, Thermal stress developed is σt/et=E
σt= E x α x Δ T
Stress and strain when the support yields:-
If the supports yield by an amount equal to
δ, then the actual expansion is given by the
difference between the thermal strain and
δ
Actual strain, e= (L x α x Δ T – δ)/L
Actual stress= Actual strain x E= (L x α x Δ
T – δ)/L x E
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