Chapter 11

Electronics
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) State the difference between conductor and insulators.
b) Define intrinsic and extrinsic conductors.
c) Explain doping in semi-conductor.
d) Explain the working of a pin junction diode.
e) Sketch current voltage characteristics for a diode.
f) Explain the application of diode rectification.
 Contents
 Conductors, semiconductors insulators
 Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductor
 Doping
 P-n junction diode
 Application of diodes: half wave rectification and full wave rectification
Electronics – is study of motion
of free electrons in electrical
circuits.
Applications – pocket
calculators, clocks, musical
instruments, radios, TVs,
computers, robots etc.
Classes of Material
1. Conductors – are materials that have free
electrons – not tightly bound to the nucleus
of the atom e.g. copper, aluminium.
2. Insulators – are materials that have
immobile (fixed) electrons.
3. Semi-conductors – are materials with
conducting properties between conductors
and insulators e.g. silicon, germanium.
 The Energy Band Theory
•When two or more atoms are
brought closer to each other, the
energy levels split into smaller
energy levels called bands.
•This is due to the interaction of
both electric and magnetic fields
of electrons.
Types of energy bands
1. Conduction band – electrons are free to
move under the influence of an electric
current.
2. Valence band – here electrons are not free
to move.
3. Forbidden gap band – represents the
energy level that cannot be represented by
electrons. The width of the band determines
Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors
in terms of energy band theory
1. Conductors:-
Conduction band – have many free
electrons.
Valence band – unfilled, few electrons.
Forbidden band gap–there no forbidden
band, conduction and valence band overlap.
Resistance increases with rise in
temperature.
A rise in temperature increases the
vibrations of the atoms and this
interferes with the electron flow.
Hence the resistance of a
conductor increases with
temperature.
2. Insulators:-
 Conduction band – has no electrons,
empty.
 Valence band – filled with electrons.
 Forbidden band – has very wide gap
 Temperature increase has no effect
on their conductivity.
3. Semi-conductors:- .
Conduction band – empty at zero Kelvin
but Partially filled at room temperature.
Valence band – filled at zero Kelvin but
full of electrons at very low
temperatures.
Forbidden band – have very narrow gap.
Resistance reduces with rise in
temperature.
Increase in temperature increases the
chance of electrons moving from the
valence band to conduction band.
Electrical resistance therefore reduces
because the total current flow is due to the
flow of electrons and holes.
Have negative temperature coefficient of
Note: semi–conductors .
 At room temperature:- have holes in the
valence band & free electrons in the
conduction band.
 At zero Kelvin, it behaves like an insulator.
 Holes: Holes are created when an electron
moves from valence band to conduction
band.
 Holes are very important for conduction of
electric current in semi- conductors.
Types of Semi-Conductors
1. Intrinsic semi-conductors
• They are pure semi-conductors, and have
electrical properties of a pure substance.
• Has equal number of electrons and holes.
• Conductivity is very low, and are
insulator at low temperatures.
• they are usually not used in a pure state
e.g. silicon
2. Extrinsic semi-conductors
•They have added impurities to
improve its electrical properties.
•All semi-conductors in practical
use, has added impurities
through a process called doping.
Doping:- is a process of adding a
very small quantity of impurities
to a pure semi-conductor to
obtain a desired property.
•It is a Process of introducing an
impurity atom into the lattice of
a pure semi-conductor.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors
• Made by adding a controlled amount of
different element to an intrinsic semi-
conductor.
Two types of extrinsic semi-conductors:-
1. N–Type semi-conductor – formed by doping
a group 4 element with a Group 5 element.
•Group 5 elements – are called Pentavalent or
doping element or donor impurity –
•
•Group 4 elements – are called Tetravalent
Atoms. Examples are: – Silicon, germanium,
etc.
2. P–Type semi-conductor – formed by
doping a group 4 element with a group 3
element.
•Group 3 elements are called Trivalent atoms.
•Examples are boron, aluminium and indium
N-Type Semi–Conductor
Formed by adding a Pentavalent atom
(Phosphorus) to a group 4 semi-conductor
(Silicon) and an extra electron is left
unpaired and is available for conduction.
Majority charge carriers are electrons;
minority charge carriers are positive holes.
Phosphorous is called a donor atom.
Silicon has now more electrons
P-Type Semi–Conductor
Formed by adding a trivalent atom (Boron) to a
group 4 atom (Silicon), a fourth electron will be
unpaired and a gap will be left called a positive
hole.
Pure semi-conductor is doped with impurity of
group 3 element; combination creates a positive
hole which accepts an electron.
The doping material creates a positive hole, which
can accept an electron – called an Acceptor.
P-N Junction Diodes (Junction . Diodes)
Definition
An electronic device with two electrodes, which allows
current to flow in one direction only.
It is an electrical one way valve. It is a solid device.
Formation of P-N Junction Diode
It consists of such a p-n junction with the p-side
connected to the Anode and the n-side to the cathode.
Formed by doping a crystal of pure silicon so that a
junction is formed between the p-type and n-type
regions.
Depletion Layer .
 The region between the p-type and n-type
semiconductor which conducts very poorly.
At the junction electrons diffuse from both
sides and neutralize each other.
Junction
Is a place/boundary between two different
types of semi-conductors.
 .
Diagram of unbiased Junction Diode
 .
Diagram of unbiased Junction Diode
 .
Biasing
i) Forward Bias
 A diode is forward biased when the cathode is connected to n-side and
anode to the p-side in a circuit.
 In forward bias, the depletion layer is narrowed and resistance is reduced.
 It allows holes to flow to n-side and electrons to p-side.
 The majority charge carriers cross the junction. It conducts current and the
bulb lights
 .
Biasing
ii) Reverse Bias
 A diode is reverse biased when the cathode is connected to p-side and
anode to the n-side in a circuit.
 The current through the diode is virtually zero. It hardly conducts, the bulb
does not light. Electrons and holes are pulled away from the depletion
layer, making it wider.
 The electrons and holes are attracted to opposite ends of the diode away
from the junction. The wider the depletion layer, the higher the resistance
of the junction.
 .
The characteristic graph of current, I against reverse bias voltage is obtained
as shown below. The curve is non-ohmic. it is non-linear. The current
increases exponentially with voltage up to a point where a sharp increase in
current is noticed. This voltage is called threshold/cut-in/break point voltage.
At this voltage potential the barrier is overcome by bias and charges easily
flow across the junction.
 .
Reverse Biasing
In reverse biasing, resistance is very high, however, the flow of leakage
current results from flow of minority charge carriers. At breakdown voltage
or Zener break down covalent bonds rapture liberating electrons. Those
electrons collide with some atoms causing ionisation this is called avalanche
breakdown. The two processes produce excess electrons for heavy
conduction. Beyond breakdown voltage a diode is damaged.
 .
The Zener Diode
Definition
 A zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi-conductor, which is designed to work in
reverse biased connection.
Principle of operation
 When the reverse-bias of the diode is increased, a large sudden increase in
current is obtained at one particular reverse voltage.
 At the reverse voltage, the p-n junction diode breaks down into a
conductor, by breaking down the barrier layer.
 The break down of the p-n junction diode is known as zener break down
or zener effect.
 The characteristic is almost a vertical line, i.e. the zener current, which
occur as a result of the zener voltage.
 .
The Zener Diode
Definition
 A zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi-conductor, which is designed to work in
reverse biased connection.
Principle of operation
 When the reverse-bias of the diode is increased, a large sudden increase in
current is obtained at one particular reverse voltage.
 At the reverse voltage, the p-n junction diode breaks down into a
conductor, by breaking down the barrier layer.
 The break down of the p-n junction diode is known as zener break down
or zener effect.
 The characteristic is almost a vertical line, i.e. the zener current, which
occur as a result of the zener voltage.
 .
Application of zener Diodes
 Used in industry as voltage regulators or stabilizers, by providing a constant
voltage to a load.
 Voltage remains constant as current increases.

Application of p-n Junction Diodes

a) To protect equipment, circuits or devices by a reverse power supply.
b) To rectify ac to dc
c) Enable the Audio Frequency energy carrier by modulated radio waves to
be detected.
 .
Rectification and Smoothing
A) Definition
 Rectification is the process of converting a.c current to d.c current.
 A Rectifier is a device that changes a.c to d.c.
b)Reasons for rectification
 The conversion of a.c. to d.c.is often necessary for all electric equipment,
such as radios, T.V. sets, computers, musical instruments etc., which use
steady d.c.
Types of rectification
There are two types of rectification, namely:-
 Half-wave rectification
 Full-wave rectification.
 .
Half-wave rectification and smoothing
 One diode is used which removes the negative half-wave cycle of the
applied a.c.
 It gives a varying but one-way direct current across the load R. R is a piece
of electronic equipment requiring a d.c. supply.

 If the Y-input terminals of a CRO are connected first across the input, the
wave form on the left will be displayed on the screen.
 When a CRO is connected across R, the output wave form is seen to be
positive half-wave of the a.c.
 .
 Smoothing is done using a capacitor connected across R, to give a much
steadier varying d.c. supply.
 The smoothing capacitor provides extra charge so that current flows
continuously even as the phase current changes and the current go to zero.

 The larger the capacitor, the better the smoothing.

 On the positive half-cycle of the a.c. input the diode conducts, current
passes through R and also into the capacitor C to charge it up.
 On the negative half- cycle, the diode is reversing biased and cannot
conduct, but C partly discharges through R.
 .
 The charge-storing action of the capacitor, C thus maintains current in R
and a steadier p.d across it when the diode is not conducting.

Note:-A single diode only allow half of the a.c. to flow through the load R, so
far half of the power supply is cutoff.
 .
Full-wave Rectification and smoothing rectification and smoothing
 There are two methods for obtaining a full-wave rectification namely:-
 Using two diodes – Full-wave centre-tap transformer.
 Using four diodes – Full-wave bridge rectifier

Using Centre-Tap Transformer

 In a full-wave rectifier, both halves of the a.c. cycles are transmitted but in
the direction, i.e. same side.
 .
or

 During the first half-cycle, when A is positive, D1 conducts through the load
R. at the same time B is negative with respect to T, so no current flows in
the diode D2.
 In the next half-cycle when B is positive, D2 conducts through the load R in
the same direction as before. A is positive with respect to T so no current
flows in D1.
 .
or
 .
Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes
 In the 1st half-cycle, diode D2 andD4 conducts.
 In the 2nd half-cycle, diode D3 and D1conducts.
 During both cycles, current passes through R in the same direction, giving a
p.d. that varies as shown by the CRO.
 When a large capacitor is connected across R, the output d.c. is smoothed
as shown.
A
D4
D1
a.c. RL
D D3 B
D2 R
C
 .
Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes
 During the first half cycle, point A is positive with respect to C, diode D1
and D3 are forward biased while diodeD2 and D4 are reverse biased.
Current therefore flows through ABDCA. During the second half cycle, point
A becomes negative with respect to point C. diodes D2 andD4 become
forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Conventional current
therefore flows through CBDAC.
 If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is
smoothened.
A
D4
D1
a.c. RL
D D3 B
D2 R C
C
 .
Advantages of bridge rectifier
 A smaller transformer can be used because there is no need for centre-
tapping.
 It is used for high voltage regulation.
 .
Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes
.
 .
Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes
.
 Questions
1. Draw the structure of a crystal lattice to show the arrangement of
electrons in following:
• Pure silicon.
• P-type semiconductors
• N-type semiconductors
2. Explain how temperatures rise affects the electrical conductivity or pure
semiconductors.
(a) Draw the symbol of a p-n diagram junction diode.
(b) Use a circuit diagram to distinguish between forward and reserve bias
of p-n junction diode.
3. (a) Use a labelled diagram to explain how a full valve rectification may be
achieved by using a resistor and: (i) Two diodes. (ii) Four diodes.
 Questions
4. With the aid of a diagram explain how a capacitor can be used to
smoothen a full wave which has been rectified. Show using a sketch how
the smoothened wave will appear on the screen of C.R.O.
5. What is meant by the following terms: semiconductor, intrinsic
conduction, extrinsic conduction, doping, donor atoms, acceptor atoms,
n-type semiconductor, p-type semiconductor, depletion layer, forward
bias, hole, reverse bias and Zener effect?
6. Explain how doping produces a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
7. Distinguish between electronics and electricity.
8. a) What is rectification?
(b)With diagrams, describe how half-wave and full-wave rectification can
be achieved.
9. Explain why a diode conducts easily on forward bias and not in reverse
bias.
 Reference
Oliver Minish etal, Secondary Physics, Students Book Four, 4th edition,
KLB, Nairobi, 2017 Page 166 - 186