UNITS 2.
5
ELMENTARY LOGIC
By: Princess April M. Mantes
Logic is technically defined as the science or study of
how to evaluate arguments and reasoning. Logic help
us to differentiate correct reasoning from poor
reasoning.
Logical reasoning is used on mathematics to prove
theorems, in computer science to verify correctness of
programs and to prove theorems.
A propositional variables is a variables which is
used to represent a proposition. A formal proposition
variables written using propositional logic notation, p,
q, and r, are used to represent propositions.
A compound proposition is a proposition composed
of two or more simple proposition connected by logical
connectives and , or if then not, if and only and
THREE MAIN LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition
“p and q”
Symbolically , p\^ q, is false. Meaning the conjunction of two
propositions is true only if each proposition is true.
The disjunction of the proposition p,q is the compound proposition “p
or q.“ Symbolically
p ^q, where v is the symbol for “or.” If p is true or q is true or if both p
and q are true, p ^q is true; is true: otherwise p v q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two proposition is false only if each proposition is false.
The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ~ p, where ~ is the
symbol for “not.” If p is true, ~p is false. Meaning the truth value of the
negation of a proposition is always the reverse of the truth value of the
original proposition.
The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p and q is the compound
proposition “if p then q.” Symbolically, p→ q, where → is te symbol for “ if
then.” p is called hypothesis(or antecedent or premise) and q is called
conclusion (or consequence and consequent).
Examples:
“ if the vinegar is sweet, then the sugar is sour.”
The biconditional of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “ p if
and only if q.’ Symbolically, p →q, where → is the symbol for “if and only if,” If
p and q are true or both false, the p → q is true; if p and q have opposite
truth values, then p → is false.
The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p
exclusive-or q.”
Symbolically, p ⊕q, where ⊕ is the symbol for “ exclusive-or .” If p and q are
true or both false,
Then p ⊕q is false; if p and q have opposite truth values, then p ⊕q is true. It
Example of Conjunction
Lets: Therefore:
P=“ I will pass mathematics.” p∧q=“I will pass the mathematics
Q= “ I will graduates.” and I wll
Graduates.”
Lets: Therefore:
P=“1+ 1= 2” q∧ p = “2+2=5 and 1+ 1= 2”
Q= 2±=5”
Example of Disjunction
Lets: Therefore:
P=“ I will pass mathematics.” P^q = I will pass mathematics or I
Q= “ I will graduates.” will graduates.
Lets: Q^q = I will graduates or I will pass
P=“ I will pass mathematics.” mathematics.
Q= “ I will graduates.”
If then (→)
Let: Therefore
p ^ q = If I will pass mathematics
Lets: then I will graduate
P=“ I will pass mathematics.”
Q= “ I will graduates.”
Lets: q →p = graduate if and only if I will
P=“ I will pass mathematics.” pass mathematics.
Q= “ I will graduates.”
If – and only – if (↔ )
Lets: Therefore:
P=“ I will pass mathematics.” Q↔p= graduate if and only if I will
Q= “ I will graduates.” pass mathematics.
P= 1+1= 2 Therefore:
Q= 2+2 = 5 P ↔ q = 1+1=2 if an only if 2+2= 5
Unit 2.6
Formality
A predicate (or open statement) is a
statement whose truth depends on the
value of one or more variables.
Predicates become propositions once
very variables is bound by assigning a
universe of discourse.
The same with other statement,
predicate are often represented by a letter.
Moreover a predicate can also be denoted by
a function like notation. We can denote the
given predicate as P(x)= “x is an even
number”. Now P(2) is true and P(3) is a
predicate then P(xl is either true or false, . on
the value of x.
A propositional function is a sentence P(3);
it becomes a statement only when variables x
is given particular value. Propositional function
are denoted as P(x), Q(x), R (x), and soon. The
independent variable of propositional function
must have a universe of discourse, which is a
set from which the variables can take values.
Consider the sentence “If x is an odd number,
then x is not a multiple of 2” the given
sentence has the logical form P(x) -} Q(x) and
it’s truth value can be determined for a
specific value of x. However statement such
as.
There exist an x such that x is
odd number and 2x is even
number.
For all x, if x is a positive
integers, then 2x + 1 is an odd
number.
Important terms:
Binding variable is used on the variable x, we can say that
the occurrence of this variable is bound
A variable is said to be free, if an occurrence of a variable is
not bound.
The statement “There exist an x such that P(x),
“ is symbolized by 3x P(x). The symbol E is
called the existential quantifier. The statement
Ex P(x) is true if there is at least one value of x
for which P(x) is true. The statement for all x
P(x) is symbolized by Vx P(x).The symbol V is
called the universal quantifier. The statement
Vx P(x) is true if only if P(x) is true for every
value x.
THANK YOU!
