Chapter 1: Introduction
What is an Operating System?
Mainframe Systems
Desktop Systems
Multiprocessor Systems
Distributed Systems
Clustered System
Real -Time Systems
Handheld Systems
Computing Environments
Hardware Protection
Operating System Concepts
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of
a computer and the computer hardware.
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
Operating System Concepts
Computer System Components
1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O
devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware
among the various application programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
(compilers, database systems, video games, business programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).
Operating System Concepts
Abstract View of System Components
Operating System Concepts
Operating System Viewpoints
USER VIEW :
ease of use with performance.
maximize resource utilization.
SYSTEM VIEW :
Resource allocator – manages and allocates resources.
Control program – controls the execution of user programs
and operations of I/O devices .
Kernel – the one program running at all times (all else being
application programs).
SYSTEM GOALS:
Convenience.
Efficiency.
Operating System Concepts
Mainframe Systems
Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs
Automatic job sequencing – automatically transfers
control from one job to another. First rudimentary
operating system.
Resident monitor
initial control in monitor
control transfers to job
when job completes control transfers back to monitor
Operating System Concepts
Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System
Operating System Concepts
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the
CPU is multiplexed among them.
Operating System Concepts
OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming
I/O routine supplied by the system.
Memory management – the system must allocate the memory to
several jobs.
CPU scheduling – the system must choose among several jobs
ready to run.
Allocation of devices.
Operating System Concepts
Time-Sharing Systems–Interactive Computing
The CPU is multiplexed among several jobs that are kept in
memory and on disk (the CPU is allocated to a job only if the job is
in memory).
A job swapped in and out of memory to the disk.
On-line communication between the user and the system is
provided; when the operating system finishes the execution of one
command, it seeks the next “control statement” from the user’s
keyboard.
On-line system must be available for users to access data and
code.
Operating System Concepts
Desktop Systems
Personal computers – computer system dedicated to a single user.
I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display screens, small printers.
User convenience and responsiveness.
Can adopt technology developed for larger operating system’ often
individuals have sole use of computer and do not need advanced
CPU utilization of protection features.
May run several different types of operating systems (Windows,
MacOS, UNIX, Linux)
Operating System Concepts
Multiprocessor (Parallel or Tightly coupled) Systems
Multiprocessor systems with more than on CPU in close
communication.
Tightly coupled system – processors share memory and a clock;
communication usually takes place through the shared memory.
Advantages of parallel system:
Increased throughput
Economical
Increased reliability
graceful degradation
fault tolerant
Operating System Concepts
Parallel Systems (Cont.)
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
Each processor runs and identical copy of the operating system.
Many processes can run at once without performance deterioration.
Most modern operating systems support SMP
Asymmetric multiprocessing
Each processor is assigned a specific task; master processor
schedules and allocated work to slave processors.
More common in extremely large systems
Operating System Concepts
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
Operating System Concepts
Distributed Systems
Distribute the computation among several physical processors.
Loosely coupled system – each processor has its own local
memory; processors communicate with one another through
various communications lines, such as high-speed buses or
telephone lines.
Advantages of distributed systems.
Resources Sharing
Computation speed up – load sharing
Reliability
Communications
Operating System Concepts
Distributed Systems (cont)
Requires networking infrastructure.
Local area networks (LAN) or Wide area networks (WAN)
May be either client-server or peer-to-peer systems.
Operating System Concepts
General Structure of Client-Server
Operating System Concepts
Clustered Systems
Clustering allows two or more systems to share storage.
Provides high reliability.
Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the application
while other servers standby.
Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running the
application.
Operating System Concepts
Real-Time Systems
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as
controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.
Operating System Concepts
Real-Time Systems (Cont.)
Hard real-time:
Secondary storage limited or absent, data stored in short term
memory, or read-only memory (ROM)
Conflicts with time-sharing systems, not supported by general-
purpose operating systems.
Soft real-time
Limited utility in industrial control of robotics
Useful in applications (multimedia, virtual reality) requiring
advanced operating-system features.
Operating System Concepts
Handheld Systems
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
Cellular telephones
Issues:
Limited memory
Slow processors
Small display screens.
Operating System Concepts
Migration of Operating-System Concepts and Features
Operating System Concepts
Computing Environments
Traditional computing
Web-Based Computing
Embedded Computing
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Protection
Dual-Mode Operation
I/O Protection
Memory Protection
CPU Protection
Operating System Concepts
Dual-Mode Operation
Sharing system resources requires operating system to
ensure that an incorrect program cannot cause other
programs to execute incorrectly.
Provide hardware support to differentiate between at
least two modes of operations.
1. User mode – execution done on behalf of a user.
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) –
execution done on behalf of operating system.
Operating System Concepts
Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.)
Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the
current mode: monitor (0) or user (1).
When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to
monitor mode.
Interrupt/fault
monitor user
set user mode
Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.
Operating System Concepts
I/O Protection
All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
Must ensure that a user program could never gain control
of the computer in monitor mode (I.e., a user program
that, as part of its execution, stores a new address in the
interrupt vector).
Operating System Concepts
Use of A System Call to Perform I/O
Operating System Concepts
Memory Protection
Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt
vector and the interrupt service routines.
In order to have memory protection, add two registers
that determine the range of legal addresses a program
may access:
Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
Limit register – contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected.
Operating System Concepts
Use of A Base and Limit Register
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Address Protection
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Protection
When executing in monitor mode, the operating system
has unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s
memory.
The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions.
Operating System Concepts
CPU Protection
Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to
ensure operating system maintains control.
Timer is decremented every clock tick.
When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
Time also used to compute the current time.
Load-timer is a privileged instruction.
Operating System Concepts
