Geographic Information System
Definition, history, & Concepts
Lecture 01
History of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
The ancient Greeks were interested in the form, size, and
geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)
hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth
had a spherical shape.
The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference
of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (276 -
194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial
circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple
geometric relationships.
This primitive calculation was unusually accurate.
Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite
technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072
kilometers.
History of GIS………..
Ptolemy (100 - 178 AD) developed the concepts of
geographical latitude and longitude.
Latitude & Longitude
• Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular
distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north
or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred
to as parallels.
• Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance,
in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of
the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are
often referred to as meridians.
This early map of the world was constructed using map making
techniques developed by Ptolemy. Note that the map is organized
with crisscrossing lines of latitude and longitude.
Canada Geographic Information System
(CGIS)
Roger
Tomlinson
Canada Geographic Information System is an example of one of
the earliest GISs developed, started from 1963)
Purpose:
➔ to analyze the data collected by the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)
➔ to produce statistics to be used in developing land
management plans
The CLI created maps which:
Classify land using various themes:
• soil capability for agriculture
• recreation capability
• capability for wildlife (ungulates)
• capability for wildlife (waterfowl
• forestry capability
The CLI created maps which:
• present land use
• shoreline
CLI developed at map scales of 1:50,000
use a simple rating scheme:
1 (best) to 7 (poorest), with detailed qualification codes
Perception was that computers could perform analyses once the
data had been input.
CGIS required the development of new technology:
● no previous experience in how to structure data internally
● no precedent for GIS operations of overlay and area
Measurement
● experimental scanner had to be built for map input.
Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics (and Spatial
Analysis) was established by Howard Fisher. This lab had
major influence on the development of GIS until early 1980s.
Many pioneers of newer GIS "grew up" at the Harvard lab.
Data formats begin to emerge and private vendors began
offering GIS packages:
Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) is
founded by Jack and Laura Dangermond as a privately held
consulting group. The business began with $1100 from their
personal savings and operated out of an historic home
located in Redlands, California.
Jim Meadlock establishes Intergraph Corporation (originally
called M & S Computing Inc).
1978
The 1980s
Second GIS phase: the GIS was pushed to evolve towards
analysis.
• In this stage more functions for USER INTERACTION were
developed mainly in a graphical way by a user friendly interface
(GUI, Graphical User Interface).
• It gave user the ability to sort, select, extract, reclassify, re-
project and display data on the basis of complex geographical,
topological and statistical criteria.
• The suppliers increased their knowledge on existing and growing
data analyses techniques, specific subject matters (e.g.: ecology
and hydrology), and data context issues.
The 1990s
Starting from the 1990s GIS entered in a new era. As
computing power increased and hardware prices plummeted,
the GIS became a viable technology for state and municipal
planning.
In this third phase of evolution GIS is asked to become a real
Management Information System (MIS), and thus able to
support decision making processes.
ESRI released ArcView® 1.0, a desktop mapping system with a
graphical user interface that marked a major improvement in
usability over Arc/Info’s command-line interface.
DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF A GIS
People generally define GIS as a powerful computer system
with in-built database management component.
Thus, GIS is "a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing,
retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data from the
real world for a particular set of purposes" (Burrough, 1986)
or
"a database system in which most of the data are spatially
indexed, and upon which a set of procedures operated in
order to answer queries about spatial entities in the
database" (Smith et al, 1987).
Definition and concept of a GIS…….
But to the opinion of some people, a GIS has something more
than a computer system.
It is a decision support system, which "involves the integration of
spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment" or
even "an institutional entity" that "integrates technology with
database and expertise" (Carter, 1989).
Keeping in view of the present day capabilities of GIS and the role
it plays, we can define GIS, in our own language:
As an information system used to store, organize, retrieve,
analyze output and update georeferenced (or spatially
referenced) data, in order to support decision making for planning
and management of activities like natural resources and
environmental management, transportation & telecommunication
utilities, etc.
Definition and concept of a GIS…….
Interestingly, the term itself is becoming hybrid and modified
to satisfy intellectual, cultural, economic and even political
objectives. (DeMers, 2000).
Thus here in Bangladesh, it is Geographic Information System
while in Europe it is Geographical Information System.
Canadian people call it a Geomative.
It is Georeltional Information System (technology based) or
Spatial Data Analysis System (terminology based) or simply
Geoscience (discipline based).
Concepts in GIS
There are two basic concepts in GIS:
One is that the geographic features have attributes associated
with them. A GIS tells us where something is and what it is.
Geographic location answers to 'where' and attributes to
'what'. Thus any GIS is clearly distinguishing itself from non-
geographic spatial data management system like CAC and
CAD, etc. which do not use geo-referenced data.
As Cowen (1988) has rightly pointed out, CAC systems are
excellent for display and can be used specifically for
mapping purposes, CAD is excellent for producing
architectural drawings and simplifying editing process.
Attribute Information: What is
Locational Information: it?
Where is it?
Concepts…..
The second basic concept is that the information collected must
be separated into layers.
In GIS, features like rivers, roads or forests are usually stored in
different layers so that they can be added or taken off during
the GIS project as and when needed.
Layers are often called coverages (or databases) and in most
cases consist of several computer files that have the same name
but different extensions. For examples, in Arc View a coverage is
called shape file (*.shp).
Layers represent information on particular classes and can be
combined to create new layers containing selected information
specific to a particular query on the GIS.
Concepts…….
If we look more closely we will identify three fundamental
features by which any layer can be represented. These are as
follows:
a. Point : A point is good for representing information which is
necessary to show where a feature is but its physical shape
is not important (i.e. location of an apple trees in an
orchard).
b. Lines: A line is suitable to represent any linear features (i.e.
a river or a road);
c. Polygons : It is just a solid multisided shape. To represent an
areas we have to draw polygon, keeping in mind that
everything inside the boundary has the attributes
associated with the record (i.e. land use/land cover types,
etc.).
FIG: GIS Layers
Land parcels
(polygons)
Road (lines)
Road
Wells Wells (points)
Soil types
Soil types
(polygons)
Concepts…….
• Each layer of information (e.g., location of apple trees,
river, land use) has to be tied to the same exact
geographic coordinate system so that each layer occupies
the exact same space and they can be overlaid.
Geographic Information System:
intuitive description
• A map with a database behind it.
• A virtual representation of the real
world and its infrastructure.
• A consistent “as-built” of the real
world, natural and manmade
Which is
• queried to support on-going
operations
• summarized to support strategic
decision making and policy
formulation
• analyzed to support scientific inquiry.
GEOSPATIAL DATA
• Geospatial data separate GIS from other information
systems. To describe a road, we refer to its location (i.e.,
where it is) and its characteristics (e.g., length, name,
speed limit, and direction).
• The location, also called geometry or shape, represents
spatial data, whereas the characteristics are attribute data.
Thus a road, like any geospatial data, has the two
components of spatial data and attribute data.
Spatial Data
• Spatial data describe the locations of spatial features, which
may be discrete or continuous. Discrete features are
individually distinguishable features that do not exist
between observations. Discrete features include points
(e.g., wells), lines (e.g., roads), and areas (e.g., land use
types).
• Continuous features are features that exist spatially
between observations. Examples of continuous features are
elevation and precipitation.
• A GIS represents these spatial features on the Earth's
surface as map features on a plane surface. This
transformation involves two main issues:
1.the spatial reference system and 2. the data
1.the spatial reference system
• The locations of spatial features on the Earth's surface are
based on a geographic coordinate system with longitude
and latitude values, whereas the locations of map features
are based on a plane coordinate system with x-, y-
coordinates.
• Projection is the process that can transform the Earth's
spherical surface to a plane surface and bridge the two
spatial reference systems.
• For GIS operations, map layers must be based on the same
coordinate system.
2. Data model
The data model defines how spatial features are represented
in a GIS. They are 2 types:
1. The vector data model uses points and their x-, y-
coordinates to construct spatial features of points, lines,
and areas.
2. The raster data model uses a grid and grid cells to
represent the spatial variation of a feature.
• The two data models differ in concept:
– vector data are ideal for representing discrete features;
– raster data are better suited for representing continuous
features.
Spatial data storage
• Vector model as geometric objects:
points, lines,
polygons
as image files
composed of grid-
• Raster model cells
(pixels)
27
Magnified view of the same GIS data file, Magnified views of the same GIS data
shown in raster format. file. converted into vector format.
Linking Spatial and Attribute data
• Attribute Data
– Attribute data describe the characteristics of spatial
features. For raster data, each cell has a value that
corresponds to the attribute of the spatial feature at that
location. A cell is tightly bound to its cell value.
– For vector data, it is point which corresponds to the
attribute of the spatial feature at that location.
Linking Spatial and Attribute data
– The georelational data model stores attribute data
separately from spatial data in a split system. The two
data components are linked through the feature IDs.
Linking Spatial and Attribute data…
• The connection between tables is made
through a key, a common field whose values
can uniquely identify a record in a table.
• For example, the feature ID serves as the key
in the georelational data model to link spatial
data and attribute data.
GIS Links Spatial Data with Geographic
Information About a Particular Feature on a Map
Feature List
The information is stored as
‘attributes’ of the graphically Spatial
represented feature. Information
Roads Map Attribute Table
4
6
1
2 3
5
Descriptive
Information
Example: A line that denotes a road tells you nothing but its location.
An attribute table stores all relevant information about this feature,
which can be queried and displayed in a format based on the user’s
needs
Data Collection
• One of the most expensive GIS activities
• Many diverse sources
• Two broad types of collection
1. Data capture (direct collection)
2. Data transfer
GIS Data Collection Techniques
Raster Vector
Primary Digital remote GPS measurements
sensing images
Digital aerial Survey
photographs measurements
Secondary Scanned maps Topographic surveys
DEMs from maps Topography data
sets from atlases
The basic elements of a GIS
4 Functions of a GIS
1. Capture data
2. Store data
3. Query data & Analysis
4. Data output & Display
A GIS is a 5-part system
1. People
2. Data
3. Hardware
4. Software
5. Procedures 34
Functional component of GIS
GIS: A Framework for Understanding and
Managing Our Earth
Geographic Knowledge
Creating
Measuring
Organizing Holistic
Analyzing
Modeling
Comprehensive
Systematic
Analytic
Applying Visual
Planning
Managing
Acting
GIS
USES
VARIOUS DATA AND VARIOUS DATA
1
SOURCES FORMATS
DIGITAL TABUL
2 TEXT
MAPS IMAGE PRODUCT GPS AR
DATA
S DATA
DATABASE
MAPS REPORTS
4 3 4
Benefits once GIS is implemented
⮚ Geospatial data are better maintained in a standard
format.
⮚ Revision and updating are easier.
⮚ Geospatial data and information are easier to search,
analysis and represent.
⮚ More value added product.
⮚ Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely.
⮚ Time and money can be saved.
⮚ Better decision can be made.
GIS in Education
• Over 7,000 universities worldwide teach GIS
• GIS used in multiple disciplines:
Agriculture Geography
Archaeology Geology
Architecture/Lanscape Arch. Meteorology
Business Oceanography
Computer Science Law Enforcement
Environmental Science Public Health
Engineering History
Journalism Sociology
Military Science Urban/Regional
Natural Resource Management Planning
GIS can be found in any field
… but generally can be grouped into four basic categories:
1. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
» Habitat analysis
» Environmental assessment
» Pest/disease outbreaks
» Impervious surface mapping
» Hydrology
» Landuse-Land cover monitoring
» Mineral province
» Geomorphology
41
2. Planning and Economic
Development
• Land Use/Zoning
• Emergency Preparedness
• Population Forecast
• Market Analysis
• Property Tax Assessment
• Transportation
GIS can be found in any field…..
3. COMMERCIAL
» Market Area Analysis
» Site Selection
» Routing
4. AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
» Field Records
» Animal Management
» Climate Change / Human Impact
43
A. DATA VISUALISATION
Which one do you prefer: tabular data or map data?
MAP
TABULAR DATA
State Population (1991)
Johor 2,074,297
Kedah 1,304,800
Kelantan 1,181,680
Melaka 504,502
How does GIS work?
How does GIS work?
How does GIS work?
How does GIS work?
Which GIS Software to choose?
There is no good or bad GIS software! It all depends on
requirement of a user/developer. But a GIS should be able
to answer the following questions :
- Location :what is at..? Locational question ~ what
exists at a particular location)
- Condition–Where is it? Conditional question ~ which
locations satisfy certain conditions
- Trends –What has changed since? Trend question ~
identifies geographic occurrence or trends that have
changed
- Relations–Which data are related? Relational question ~
analyzes the spatial relationship among objects
- Modeling –What if …? Model based question ~ displays
an optimum path, a suitable shelter or risk areas based on
models.
