Digital logic design

Lecture-1 UNIT-1

Number System

P.Archana
Assistant Professor, ECE Dept
 Text Books

• Morris Mano-,Digital design –PHI,

2nd Edition.
• Zvi Kohavi and Niraj K Jha -
Switching & Finite Automata theory
– Cambridge, 3rd Edition.
• Subrata Ghoshal, Digital
Electronics,2012, Cengage Learning
 SYLLABUS OF

Unit-1: Number System

• Binary, decimal, octal, hexa decimal, weighted
and un-weighted codes.
• Boolean Algebra: Axiomatic definition of
Boolean algebra, Binary operators, postulates
and theorems.
• Boolean addition, subtraction, 1’s
complement, 2’s complement. Switching
functions, Canonical forms and Standard
forms, Simplification of switching functions
using theorems.
 Digital Systems
Digital vs. Analog Waveforms

Digital: Analog:
only assumes discrete values values vary over a broad range
continuously
Voltage : 5v to 3.5 V --- 1

Voltage : 3.4v to 0V --- 0

 Introduction
• What is design?
With reference to the given
specifications of a problem, come up
with solution by choosing appropriate
components.
While meeting requirements of the
design such as Minimum Area(size),
Maximum Speed (Frequency of
operation), Low power dissipation, less
cost, more reliability etc.
 What is logic design?
Determining the collection of digital
logic components to perform
 Specified control
Data manipulation
Communication function
Interconnections between them
Which logic components to choose?
 There are many implementation
technologies
Ex: Programmable Logic devices,
Transistors on a chip etc.
The design may need to be
optimized and/or transformed to
meet design constraints
Advantages of Digital System over
Analog System
• Reproducibility of the results is accurate
• Flexibility and Functionality
• Speed: Digital logic Element can produce
an output in less than 10 nano seconds
• Economy: Due to integration of millions of
digital logic elements on a single chip
forming low cost integrated circuit
• Less memory storage requirement
• Easy to process the digital signals
 Applications of Digital Systems
• Cellular and Mobile Communications
• Business Transactions
• Traffic Control
• Space Guidance
• Medical Treatment
• Weather Monitoring
• Internet of Things
• Digital Television
• Digital Cameras
• Digital Computers
 Number Systems
• Positive radix, positional number systems
• A number with radix (base) r (or b) is
represented by a string of digits (n in
integer and m in fraction):
An - 1An - 2 … A1A0 . A- 1 A- 2 … A- m
Integer Part Fraction Part

where “.” is the radix point.

Chapter 1 11
The string of digits represents the
power series:
j=-1
i=n-1

i
(Number) = ∑A r i + ∑ Aj r
j

r
i=0 j=-m
+ve exponents -ve exponents

(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)

 Number Systems Used in Computers
Name
Radix Set of Digits
of Radix
Example
Decima r=1 {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} 255 10
l 0
Binar r=2 {0,1} 11001111 2
y
Octal r= {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7} 377 8
8
Hexadecimal r=1 {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F} FF 16
6
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
 Binary Numbers:
Special Powers of 2

210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"

220 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"
230 (1,073, 741,824) is Giga, denoted "G"
240 (1,099,511,628) is Tera, denoted “T"
 Number - Base Conversion
• The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
Decimal to Decimal (just for fun)

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

12510 => 1 x 102+2 x 101 +5 x 100=125

 Binary to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Decimal
• Technique
–Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is
the “weight” of the bit
• The weight is the position of the bit,
starting from 0 on the right side
–Add the results
 Examples
EX1:
1010112 => 1x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20 =43
EX2:
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 1 )2 = 2¹ + 2² + (2^4) +( 2^-2) + (2^-4)

(10110.0101)2 = 2 + 4 + 16 + (1/4) + (1/16)

(10110.0101)2 = 22.3125
What is the largest binary number that can be expressed with
12 bits? What is the equivalent decimal ?

Binary:
(111111111111)2
Decimal:
(111111111111)2 = 1x 2º+ 1 x 2¹ + 1 x 2² +…..+ 1 x 2¹¹
(111111111111)2 = 4,095
 Octal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Decimal
• Technique
– Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the
“weight” of the bit
• The weight is the position of the bit,
starting from 0 on the right side
– Add the results
Example:
724.128 => 7x82+2x81+4x80 +1*8-1+2*8-2=
46810
Hexadecimal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Decimal
• Technique
–Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is
the “weight” of the bit
• The weight is the position of the bit,
starting from 0 on the right side
–Add the results
 Example

ABC16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560

274810
 Decimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Binary
• Integer part conversion
– Successive division by two, keep track of the
remainder until quotient is 0 or 1.
– The first remainder is least-significant bit
– The last remainder is most-significant bit
• Fractional part conversion.
– Successive multiplication by two. The integer part of
the product becomes a numeral in the binary take it a
side.
– The fractional part is again multiplied by two and
this process is repeated untill fractional part reaches
zero
– The first product integer is MSB and last product
integer is LSB bits
Convert the decimal number 345 to binary

Number Divided by Remainder

(345)10 2
345 345/2=172 1
172 172/2=86 0
86 86/2=43 0
43 43/2=21 1
21 21/2=10 1
10 10/2=5 0
5 5/2=2 1
2 2/2=1 1
 Convert decimal 34.4375 to binary

(a) 34.4375

34 0.4375

34/2=17 r=0 0.4375*2=0.875

17/2=8 r=1 r=0

8/2=4 r=0 0.875*2=1.75

r=1
4/2=2 r=0
0.75*2=1.5
2/2= 1 r=0 r=1
0.5*2=1.0
34=(100010)2 r=1
0*2=0
r=0
34.4375=(100010.01110)
2 0.4375=(0.011
10)2
 Decimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Octal
• Integer part conversion
– Successive division by 8, keep track of the
remainder until quotient is zero.
– The first remainder is least-significant bit
– The last remainder is most-significant bit
• Fractional part conversion.
– Successive multiplication by 8. The integer part of
the product becomes a numeral in the octal take it a
side.
– The fractional part is again multiplied by 8 and this
process is repeated until fractional part reaches zero
– The first product integer is MSB and last product
integer is LSB bits
Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Integer part conversion
– Successive division by 16, keep track of the
remainder until quotient is zero.
– The first remainder is least-significant bit
– The last remainder is most-significant bit
• Fractional part conversion.
– Successive multiplication by 16. The integer part of
the product becomes a numeral in the hexadecimal,
take it a side.
– The fractional part is again multiplied by 16 and
this process is repeated until fractional part reaches
zero
– The first product integer is MSB and last product
integer is LSB bits
 Octal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Binary
• Technique
–Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit
equivalent binary representation
 Example
7058 = ?2

7 0 5

111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012
Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary
• Technique
–Convert each hexadecimal digit to
a 4-bit equivalent binary
representation
 Example
10AF16 = ?2

1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112
 Binary to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Octal
• Technique
–Group bits in threes, starting on
right
–Convert to octal digits
 Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
Hexadecimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Octal
• Technique
–Use binary as an intermediate
number
Binary to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Hexadecimal
• Technique
–Group bits in fours, starting on
right
–Convert to hexadecimal digits
 Example
10101110112 = ?16

10 1011 1011

2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16
What is the largest binary number that can be expressed with
12 bits? What is the equivalent hexadecimal ?

Binary:
(111111111111)2

Hexadecimal:
(1111 1111 1111)2
F F F

= (FFF)16
Convert the given binary number 1.11010 to hexadecimal
number

( 1 . 1101 0 )2 = ( 1 . D )16
1 D 0 0 -1
Octal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Hexadecimal
• Technique
–Use binary as an intermediary
Convert the hexadecimal number 68BE to binary and then
binary to octal .

(68BE) 16
Binary form:
(0110 1000 1011
1110)2=(0110100010111110)2
6 8 B E
Octal form:
(0 110 100 010 111 110)2
0 6 4 2 7 6
=(064276)8
Convert the following numbers with the indicated bases to
decimal : (4310)5 , and (198)12 .

(4310)5 = 0 x 5º + 1 x 5¹ + 3 x 5² + 4 x 5³ = 0 + 5 + 75 + 500
(4310)5 = (580)10

(198)12 = 8 x 12º + 9 x 12¹ + 1 x 12² = 8 + 108 + 144

(198)12 = (260)10
 Contents to be Covered Today
✔ Binary Codes
❖Weighted Codes
▪8-4-2-1 Code (BCD code)
▪2-4-2-1 code
▪6-4-2- -3 code
❖Unweighted Codes
▪Excess-3 code
▪Cyclic code
▪Gray code
✔ Code conversions
▪Binary to Gray
▪Gray to Binary
✔1’s compliment
✔2’s compliment
✔Boolean addition
✔ Boolean subtraction
 Binary Codes
Binary codes are of two types:
⮚ Weighted Codes
⮚ Non weighted or Unweighted Codes
 Weighted codes
• The main characteristic is that each binary
digit is assigned a decimal “weight” and for
each group of four bits, the sum of the weights
of those binary digits whose value is 1 is equal
to the decimal number which they represent.
• If w0 ,w1, w2 and w3 are the given weights of
the binary digits and x0,x1, x2,x3
the corresponding digit values then the
decimal number is
N= w3x3 + w2x2 + w1x1 + w0x0
• The sequence of binary digits that
represents a decimal number is called
a code word
• The sequence x3, x2, x1, x0 is the code
word for N
• Examples of weighted codes
–8421
–2421
–642-3
Examples of Weighted Codes
 BCD CODE
• BCD: Binary-coded decimal, also known
as 8421 code
• BCD addition
– Similar to add 4-bit unsigned binary numbers.
– Make correction if a result exceeds 1001 (9).
By adding 0110 (6).
– Carry into the next digit position may come
from either the initial binary addition or the
correction-factor addition.
 Non weighted codes
• There are many nonweighted binary
codes, two of which are
–Excess-3
–Cyclic
Nonweighted codes
 Excess-3 code
• Self-complementing code
• Not weighted
 Gray Code
• In Practical applications it is desirable to use
codes in which the code words for succesive
decimal integers differ in only one digit.
• In a Gray code only one bit changes between
each pair of successive code words
• Gray code is a reflected code or mirror image
code It can be defined recursively using the
1. A 1-bit Gray code has two code words, 0 and
1. following rules:
2. The first 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit gray
code equal the code words of an n-bit gray
code,written in order with a leading 0 appended.
 3. The last 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit
Gray code equal the code words of an n-bit
gray code, but written in reverse order with a
leading 1 appended.
■ Example: For a 2-bit Gray code, n=1.
2-bit Gray code
1-bit Gray code 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
1 0 1
1
 Gray Code
■ Example: For a 3-bit Gray code, n=2.
3-bit Gray code
2-bit Gray code 0 0 00
0 0 00
0 0 0 01
0 0 1 01
0 1 11 10
1 1 01 10
1 1 11 11
1 1 10 01
1 0 11
 The Gray Code
Decimal Binary Gray Code Decim Binar Gray
0 0000 0000 al y Code
1 0001 0001 8 1000 1100
2 0010 0011 9 1001 1101
3 0011 0010 10 1010 1111
4 0100 0110 11 1011 1110
5 0101 0111 12 1100 1010
6 0110 0101 13 1101 1011
7 0111 0100 14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
 Binary to Gray code conversion-1
• Binary-to-Gray code conversion
– The MSB in the Gray code is the same as
corresponding MSB in the binary number.
– Going from left to right, add each adjacent pair of
binary code bits to get the next Gray code bit.
Discard carries.
ex: convert 101102 to Gray code
1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 binary

1 1 1 0 1 Gray
Binary to Gray Code Conversion-2
 The Gray to Binary Conversion
• Gray-to-Binary Conversion
– The MSB in the binary code is the same as the
corresponding bit in the Gray code.
– Add each binary code bit generated to the Gray
code bit in the next adjacent position. Discard
carries.
ex: convert the Gray code word 11011 to binary
1 1 0 1 1 Gray
+ + + +
1 0 0 1 0 Binary
 1’s compliment and 2’s compliment

• There are two types of compliments for each

number base system.
– Have the r’s complement
– Have the (r-1)’s complement
• For Binary number system (base 2)
we have 2’s complement and 1’s complement
 1’s Complement
• 1’s complement of N = (2n -1)-N.
Ex: If n=4 have (2n -1) being 10000 - 1
= 1111
• So for n=4 would subtract any 4-bit binary
number from 1111.
• This is just inverting each bit.
• Example: 1’s compliment of 1011001
• is 0100110
 2’s complement
• The 2’s complement of N= 2n-N
• Adding 1 to the 1’s complement of a
number.
• For Ex : 6 = 0110
–The 1’s complement is 1001
–The 2’s complement is 1001+0001
1010
 Obtain the 1’s and 2’S complements of the following binary
numbers :

(a)11101010 (b)01111110 (c)00000001 (d)10000000

1’s complements:
(a) 00010101 (b)10000001 (c)11111110 (d)01111111

2’s complement :
(a) 00010110 (b)10000010 (c)11111111 (d)10000000
 Operation with 2’s complement
• Add 4 and -6
• Will use the 2’s complement of -6 or 1010
– 4 0100
– -6 1010
– 1110
• And taking the 2’s complement of 1110 get
0001 + 1 = 0010

100
ADDITION
Example
 Definition of Boolean algebra
In mathematics and mathematical logic,
Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in
which the values of the variables are the truth
values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0
respectively.

• Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure

defined by a set of elements, together with two
binary operators + and . , provided that the
following postulates are satisfied.
 Postulate : Closure Property
• Closure(a):
when two binary elements are operated
by operator + the result is a unique
binary element OR operator
(plus/Addition)
• Closure(b):
When two binary elements are operated by
operator .(dot),the result is a unique binary
element AND operator(dot/multiplication)
 Postulate: Identity or Idempotency
Property
• There exists unique elements 1(one) and
0(zero) such that:
(a) x + x = x
x+0=x
(b) x . x= x
x . 1= x
• Where 0 is the identity element for the OR
operator and 1 is the identity element for the
AND operator
 Postulate : Complementation Property

•For every x in β there exists a unique

element x’ such that:
x + x’ = 1 x . x’ = 0
Properties of 0 and 1 Element
 Binary Operators

x y x.y x y x+y x x’

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Duality Property
• If a Boolean expression is true, the dual of
expression also true.
• To find the dual, follow the following steps:
(1) Change + operator to . operator
(2) Change . operator to + operator.
(3) Change 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 .
• Example: Dual of relation X + X’ = 1 is X . X’ =0.
• Duality is a very important property of boolean
algebra.
Basic Boolean Theorems
 Theorem1 : Idempotency
(a) A+A=A (b) A . A = A
Proof: Proof:
A + A = (A + A) . 1 A.A=A.A+0
= (A + A). (A + A’) = A . A + A .A’
= A A + A A’ + A A + A = A ( A + A’)
A’ =A.1
= A A+ A A’ =A
=A+0
=A
 Perfect Induction Method
• (a) A+1 =1 (b) A . 0 = 0
Proof:
A + 1 = 1 . (A + 1) Proof:
= (A + A’) (A + 1) 0.0=0
= A.A + A.1 + A’
.A + A’.1 => A
= A +A+ 0 + A’ .0=0
= A + A’
=1 1.0=0

A . 0 = 0 by the
 Theorem 2: Involution
• A’’ = A
• Proof:
0’’ = 0
=> A’’ = A
1’’ = 1
 Theorem 3 : Absorbtion
• (a) A + AB = A (b) A (A+B) = A
Proof: Proof:
A + AB = A . 1 + AB A (A + B) = A . A + AB
= A(1+B) = A + AB
=A.1 =A
=A
 Examples of Absorption theorem
• (a) A + A’ B = A + B (b) A . (A’ + B) = AB
Proof:
Proof: A . ( A’ + B) = (A + AB) . (A’ + B)
A + A’ B = A + AB + A’B = A A’ + AB + A’AB+ ABB
= AB + ABB
= A + B .( A + A’)
= AB + AB
= A + B .1 = AB
= A+ B
 Theorem4: DeMorgan’s Theorems
• DeMorgan suggested two theorems that
form an important part of boolean algebra.
(1) = +
(2)The complement of a product is equal to the
sum of the complements
Truth Table:
(2)
=
• The complement of a sum is equal to
the product of the complements
Truth Table:
Theorem5 : Consensus Theorem
• The expression of the form AB + A’C+ BC in which
the term BC is redundant and can be eliminated to
form the equivalent expression as AB + A’C
• The theorem used for this simplification is known as
consensus theorem and it is stated as
AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C
Proof:
AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C + (A + A’) BC
= AB + A’C + ABC + A’BC
= AB + ABC + A’C + A’BC
= AB(1+C) + A’C(1+B)
= AB + A’C
 Binary Operators

x y x.y x y x+y x x’

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 x.(y+z) = (x.y)+(x.z)
x y z y+z x.(y+z) x.y x.z (x.y)+x.z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Switching Functions
• Switching functions are also called as Boolean Functions

• Boolean expressions are constructed by connecting Boolean

constants and variables with Boolean operators.

• Boolean expressions are also known as Boolean formulae.

• Boolean expressions are used to describe Boolean functions

.
• Example: The Boolean expression (A + B’) C is used to
describe the function f , then the Boolean function written as
f(A, B, C) = (A + B’) C (or)
f = (A + B’) C
•In the following Boolean function, the variables
appeared either in a complemented or in an
uncomplemented form
•Occurrence of variable either in a complemented
or in an uncomplemented form is called a Literal.
•A product term is defined as either a literal or
product of literals.
• The above Boolean function consists of
seven literals, they appear in sum terms.
• A sum term is defined as either literal or
sum of literals.
Simplification of Switching Functions using
Theorems
Simplification of Switching Functions using
Theorems
• Example 1: Simplify the expression Z = A B + A B’ .
(A’C’)’.
Solution: Apply the Demorgan’s theorem and multiply out
all terms.
Z = A B + A B’ . (A’C’)’
= A B + A B’ . (A’’ + C’’).
= A B + A B’ .(A + C)
= A B + A B’ A + A B’ C
= A B + A B’ + A B’ C
= A B + A B’ ( 1 + C)
= A B + A B’
= A ( B + B’)
= A
Simplify the following :
 Standard Forms
• Boolean function can be expressed in the
standard form.
• In the standard form, the terms that form the
function may contain one, two, or any number
of literals.
• The literals and terms are arranged in one of
the two standard forms:
(1) Sum Of Products form (SOP)
(2) Product Of Sums form (POS)
 Sum Of Products (SOP)
• The sum and product are derived from
the symbolic representations of the OR
and AND functions by + and . boolean
operators
• Product term is group of literals that are
ANDed together.
example: A.B.C , X.Y
• Sum term is group of literals that are
Ored together.
example: A + B + C, X +
Y
• Sum Of Products (SOP): It is a boolean expression
containing AND terms, called product terms.
Sum(OR) of these product terms having one or more
literals called SOP form
Example: Sum
f(A,B,C) = A B + A B’ C’

Product terms
• Each of these sum of products expression consist of
two or more product terms (AND) that are ORed
together
• Each product term consists of one or more literals,
appear in either complemented or uncomplemented
form
• The sum of products form is also known as
disjunctive normal form
 Product Of Sums (POS)
• A product of sums is group of sum terms ANDed
together.
E xample: Product
f(A,B,C) = (A + B) . (B’ + C)
Sum terms
• Product of sums expression consist of two or more
sum terms (OR) that are ANDed together.
• Each sum term consists of one or more literals,
appear in either complemented or an
uncomplemented form.
• The product of sums form is also known as
conjunctive normal form
 Canonical Forms
• The canonical forms are the special
cases of Sum Of Product (SOP) and
Product Of Sum (POS) forms
• These are also known as standard
Sum Of Product(SOP) and standard
Product Of Sum (POS) forms
 Standard SOP Form
• In the SOP form all the individual terms do not involve all
literals.
• Example: AB + ABC’
• If each term in SOP form contains all the literals, then the
SOP form is known as Standard or canonical SOP form.
• Each individual term in standard SOP form is called
minterm. So it also called as minterm canonical form.
• Example: f(A,B,C) = A B’C + A B C + A’ B C’
Each product term consists of all literals in either
complemnted or uncomplemented form
 • Example2: Simplify the following three variable expression
using Boolean algebra, Y =

•Step 1: From the minterms we can write expression in

SOP form
Y = A’ B’ C + A’ B C +A B’ C + A B C
• Step 2: Search for common terms for factorization
Y = A’ B’ C + A’ B C + A B’ C + A B C
= A’ C ( B + B’) + A C ( B’ + B)
= A’ C + A C
= C ( A’ + A)
=C
• Example3: Simplify the following three variable expression using
Boolean algebra Y = Л M (3,5,7)
Solution: Y=

From the minterms write expression in SOP form

Y = A’ B’ C’ + A’ B’ C + A’ B C’ + A B’ C’ + A B C’
= A’ B’ C’ + A B’ C’ + A’ B C’ + A B C’ + A’ B’ C
= B’ C’ (A’ + A) + BC’ ( A’ + A) + A’ B’ C
= B’ C’ + B C’ + A’ B’ C
= C’ ( B’ + B) + A’ B’ C
= C’ + A’ B’ C from A + A’ B = A + B

= C’ + A’ B’
 Standard POS form
• If each term in POS form contains all the
literals, then the POS form is known as
standard or canonical POS form.
• Each individual term in the standard POS form
is called maxterm. So it is also known as
maxterm canonical form
Example: f(A,B,C) = (A + B+ C) . (A + B’
+ C)
Each sum term consists of all literals in
either complemnted or un complemnted form
Converting expressions in to standard
SOP or POS form
• Steps to convert SOP to Standard
SOP form:
– Step1: Find the missing literal in each product
term.
– Step2: AND each product term having missing
literal with term formed by ORing the literal
and its complement.
– Step3: Expand the terms by applying
distributive law and reorder the literals in the
product terms.
– Step4: Reduce the expression by omitting
repeated product terms, if any. Because A + A =
A.
 Example
• Convert the given expression in to standard
SOP form
f(A,B,C) = AC + AB + BC
• Solution:
Step1: Find the missing literal in each
product term.
f(A,B,C) = AC + AB + BC
Literal B is missing
Literal A is missing
Literal C is missing
• Step2: AND product term with (missing literal + its
complement).
Original product terms
f(A,B,C) = AC . (B+B’) + AB . (C+C’) + BC .
(A+A’)
Missing Literals and their
complements
• Step3: Expand the terms and reorder literals
Expand: f(A,B,C) = ACB +ACB’ + ABC + ABC’ +
BCA + BCA’
Reorder: f(A,B,C) = ABC + AB’C + ABC + ABC’ +
ABC + A’BC
• Step4:Omit repeated product terms
f(A,B,C) = ABC + AB’C + ABC +
ABC’ +ABC + A’BC

f(A,B,C) = ABC + A B’C + ABC’

+A’BC
----Standard SOP
form (Canonical form)
• Steps to convert POS to standard
POS form
– Step1: Find the missing literal in each sum term, if
any.
– Step2: OR each sum term having missing literal
with term formed by ANDing the literal and its
complement.
– Step3: Expand the terms by applying distributive
law and reorder the literals in the sum terms.
– Step4: Reduce the expression by omitting repeated
sum terms if any . Because A . A = A.
 EXAMPLE
• Convert the given POS expression in to
standard POS Form
f(A,B,C) = A . (A+B+C)
• Solution:
Step1: Find the missing literal in each
sum term
f(A,B,C) = A . (A+B+C)
Literals B and C are missing
• Step2: OR sum term with ( missing literal . Its
complement)
f(A,B,C) = ( A + B.B’ + C.C’) ( A + B + C)
Missing literals and their
complemnts
• Step3: Expand the terms and reorder literals.
since A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
f(A,B,C) = (A + B.B’+ C) (A + B.B’ + C’)
(A + B + C)

= (A + B + C) ( A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A + B’ + C’)
( A+ B+ C)
• Step4: Omit repeated sum terms

f(A,B,C) = (A + B + C) (A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A
+ B’ + C’) (A + B + C)

f(A,B,C) = (A + B + C) (A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A
+ B’ + C’)
----Standard POS
form (Canonical form)
 M-Notations : Minterms and Maxterms
• Minterm is a product term having all the variables of
the function either in its normal or complimented
form
• Each individual term in standard SOP form is called
Minterm
• Maxterm is a sum term having all the variables of
the function either in its normal or complimented
form
• Each individual term in standard POS form is called
Maxterm
• For an n-variable logical function there are 2 n
minterms and an equal number of maxterms.
 Minterms and Maxterms for Three Variables
•Each minterm is represented by m i .
•Each maxterm is represented by Mi .
• Where i is the decimal number equilent of the
binary number
 Examples
• Minterms:
f( A,B,C) = A’ B’ C’ + A’ B’C + A’ B C +
A B C’
= m0 + m 1 + m3 + m6 =
• Maxterms:
f( A,B,C) = (A + B + C’) (A + B’ + C’) (A’ + B’ + C)
= M1 . M3 . M6 = Л M (1, 3 ,6)
Where Л denotes product of sums and

Indicates sum of products