Evolution of Computing Sciences:
Milestones in Computer Development
Course: SCC 202
Institution: Landmark University
Ancient
Computing
Devices
Abacus (3000 BCE)
– First known calculating tool
– Used across ancient
civilizations (Mesopotamia,
Egypt, China)
Antikythera Mechanism (150-100
BCE)
– Ancient Greek analog
computer
– Predicted astronomical
positions and eclipses
Antikythera Mechanism
(150-100 BCE)
Mechanical Computing Era
Pascal's Calculator (1642) Leibniz Wheel (1673) Jacquard Loom (1804)
Extended Pascal's design to
Invented by Blaise Pascal Used punched cards to automate
perform multiplication
First mechanical calculator that weaving patterns
Introduced the stepped reckoner
could add and subtract Conceptual foundation for
mechanism
programmable machines
Analytical Engines
Charles Babbage (1791-1871) Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)
"Father of the Computer" First computer programmer
Designed the Difference Engine (1822) Wrote algorithms for the Analytical
Conceived the Analytical Engine (1837) Engine
First general-purpose computer design
Had memory, processor, and
programmable features
Early Electronic Computing
Alan Turing's Theoretical Foundation ENIAC
• Conceptualized the Turing Machine • Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
• Established the theoretical basis for modern • First electronic general-purpose computer
computation • 1,800 square feet, 30 tons, 18,000 vacuum tubes
1936 1945
1938
Z1 Computer
• Built by Konrad Zuse in Germany
• First programmable computer
The First Generation (1940s-1950s)
Vacuum Tube Technology Characteristics
EDVAC (1949): First stored-program Massive size, high power consumption
computer Machine language programming
UNIVAC I (1951): First commercial Limited memory capacity
computer in the US
IBM 701 (1952): IBM's first commercial
scientific computer
The Second Generation (1950s-1960s)
Transistor Technology Key Developments Characteristics
Replaced vacuum tubes IBM 1401: Most popular Reduced size and cost
Smaller and more reliable business computer Increased speed and
Programming languages: reliability
FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL Magnetic tape storage
Batch processing systems
The Third Generation (1960s-
1970s)
Integrated Circuit • Multiple transistors on a single silicon chip
Technology
• IBM System/360: First computer family concept
Key • Minicomputers: DEC PDP-8, PDP-11
Developments • UNIX operating system (1969)
• Time-sharing systems
Characteristics • More advanced operating systems
• Disk storage technology
Integrated circuit
The Fourth Generation (1970s-
1980s)
• Microprocessor Era
– Intel 4004 (1971): First commercial
microprocessor
– Moore's Law: Computing power doubles
approximately every 18-24 months
• Personal Computing Revolution
– Altair 8800 (1975): First successful personal
computer
– Apple II (1977): First mass-market PC
– IBM PC (1981): Set industry standards
• Software Evolution
– Microsoft founding (1975)
– First spreadsheets (VisiCalc, 1979)
– Word processing software
The Internet and Networking
ARPANET World Wide Web
• First wide-area packet-switching network • Developed by Tim Berners-Lee
• Precursor to the modern internet • HTTP protocol, HTML, first web browser
1974
1969 1989–1991
TCP/IP Protocol
• Standard networking protocol
• Enabled different networks to communicate
AI and Parallel
Processing
The Fifth Mobile
Computing
• Smartphones and tablets
• iOS and Android operating
systems
Revolution
Generation
(1980s- Cloud
Computing
• Distributed computing resources
• Software as a Service (SaaS)
• Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Present)
• User-friendly interfaces
Characteristics • Global connectivity
• Powerful handheld devices
Big Data • Processing massive datasets
and • Machine learning and AI
Analytics applications
• Connected devices and
Internet of sensors
Things (IoT) • Smart homes, cities, and
Modern infrastructure
Computing
Landscape Quantum
• Leveraging quantum
mechanics
• Potential to solve previously
Computing
impossible problems
• Processing data closer to its
Edge source
Computing • Reduced latency for critical
applications
Social Impact of Computing
Economic Digital economy
Transformation Automation and job market changes
Social Social media
Connectivity Global communication
Information Democratization of knowledge
Access Digital divide concerns
Privacy and Cybersecurity threats
Security
Data protection issues
Challenges
Future Directions
Artificial General Neuromorphic Sustainable Computing Ethical Computing
Intelligence Computing
Brain-inspired computing Green computing initiatives Algorithmic fairness
architectures Energy-efficient technologies Responsible AI development
Conclusion
Computing has evolved from mechanical calculators to
sophisticated AI systems
Each generation has brought fundamental changes in size,
speed, capabilities, and accessibility
Understanding this evolution helps us anticipate future
developments and their societal impacts
Computing continues to transform every aspect of human
life and society
Discussion Questions
How has computing changed society over the last
century?
Which computing milestone do you think had the greatest
impact on our daily lives?
What ethical challenges might emerge from future
computing developments?
How might computing continue to evolve in the next 50
years?
References
Ceruzzi, P. E. (2003). A History of Modern Computing. MIT Press.
Ifrah, G. (2001). The Universal History of Computing. John Wiley & Sons.
Abbate, J. (1999). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press.
Campbell-Kelly, M., & Aspray, W. (2004). Computer: A History of the Information Machine.
Westview Press.
Denning, P. J., & Metcalfe, R. M. (1997). Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of
Computing. Springer.
