Earthquakes: Seismic waves

The epicenter of an earthquake sends out waves which are like an object dropped on to a still body of
water that sends out ripples. After the stone hits the water ripples move outwards from the centre in
every direction. An earthquake releases energy as shock waves, the so-called seismic waves, which
ripple across the earth's surface. The seismic waves created as they move from the epicenter an
earthquake vary. What is amazing is how fast they can travel: up to 2 miles per second in granite!
Seismic waves can be classified into two basic types: body waves which travel through the Earth and
surface waves, which travel along the Earth's surface. Those waves that are the most destructive are
the surface waves which generally have the strongest vibration.

Body waves
Body waves are of two types: compressional or primary (P) waves and shear or secondary (S) waves.
P- and S- waves are called "body waves" because they can travel through the interior of a body such
as the Earth's inner layers, from the focus of an earthquake to distant points on the surface. The
Earth's molten core can only be traveled through by compressional waves.

P-waves travel fastest, at speeds between 4-8 km/sec (14,000-28,000 km/h) in the Earth's crust. S-
waves travel more slowly, usually at 2.5-4 km/sec (9,000-14,000 km/h). Sound waves are usually
called P-waves and are heard but not often felt. Except in the most powerful earthquakes they
generally do not cause much damage. P-waves shake the ground in the direction they are
propagating, while S-waves shake perpendicularly or transverse to the direction of propagation (i.e.
they displace material at right angles to their path).

The P-wave is the first to arrive at a location, as it is the fastest. The P wave, or compressional wave,
ultimately compresses and expands material in the same direction it is travelling. The next to arrive is
the S wave which causes particles to oscillate. S waves can travel through solid material but not
through liquid or gas.
Surface waves
Surface waves, in contrast to body waves can only move along the surface. They arrive after the main
P and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the Earth. They cause the most surface
destruction. Earthquake surface waves are divided into two different categories: Love and Rayleigh.

Love waves have a particle motion, which, like the S-wave, is transverse to the direction of
propagation but with no vertical motion. Their side-to-side motion (like a snake wriggling) causes the
ground to twist from side to side, that's why Love waves cause the most damage to structures.

Rayleigh waves create a rolling, up and down motion with an elliptical and retrograde particle motion
confined to the vertical plane in the direction of propagation. Surface waves are generally not
generated by deep earthquakes.

Particle motion for Rayleigh and Love waves are different: Rayleigh waves have retrograde particle
motion confined to the vertical plane of motion, whereas Love waves have purely transverse motion
in the horizontal plane.

Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves but deep earthquakes generally
do not generate surface waves.
SHADOW ZONE:
The seismic shadows are the effect of seismic waves striking the core-mantle boundary. P and S
waves radiate spherically away from an earthquake's hypocenter (or focus) in all directions and
return to the surface by many paths. S waves, however, don't reappear beyond an angular distance
of 103° (as they are stopped by the liquid) and P waves don't arrive between 103° and 142° due to
refraction at the mantle-core boundary.
Keypoints:
The seismic shadow zone is the area of the Earth's surface where seismographs cannot detect an
earthquake after the waves have passed through the earth.
P waves are refracted by the liquid outer core and are not detected between 103° and 142°
S waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core and are not detected beyond 103°
Seismograph: It is an instrument which is used to measure the strength, direction, and
duration of an earthquake, volcano eruption, explosion, etc.
Facts about Seismograph / Seismometer
It is a sensitive and magnify instrument can easily detect strong earthquake from source
anywhere in the world. At seismograph station, the time, location and magnitude of an
earthquake or volcano can be easily found out with the help of recorded data. It is used to
detect and record the vibration of the earth surface. Sometimes the series of tremor
called foreshock can be felt before the actual earthquake happens. At that time this
instrument becomes boon for us. It is also a fact that we cannot predict an earthquake by
this instrument. The record generated by seismograph (seismometer) on display or paper
print is called seismogram.
 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes can be human-made or natural, although the latter is more abundant. These
earthquakes are not random; rather, they are the effect of different changes occurring in the
earth’s crust for a long time. The main causes of earthquakes fall into five categories:

1. Volcanic Eruptions
The main cause of the earthquake is volcanic eruptions. Such type of earthquakes occurs in
areas, with frequent volcanic activities. When boiling lava tries to break through the surface
of the earth, with the increased pressure of gases, certain movements caused in the earth’s
crust. Movement of lava beneath the surface of the earth can also cause certain disruptions.
This sends shockwaves through the earth, causing damage. These earthquakes are mild.
Their range is also limited. However, there have been certain exceptions, with volcanic
earthquakes bring havoc and death to thousands of people. https://youtu.be/RxPrHy8RBj0
2. Tectonic Movements
The surface of the earth consists of some plates, comprising of the upper mantle. These plates are
always moving, thus affecting the earth’s crust. These movements categorized into three types:
constructive, destructive, and conservative. Constructive is when two plates move away from each
other, they correspond to mild earthquakes. When two plates move towards each other and
collide, this is known as destructive plate boundaries. This is very destructive. Conservative
corresponds to passing by of plates of crust. Earthquakes of this type have varying intensities.
3. Geological Faults
A geological fault is known as the displacement of plates of their original plane. The plane can be
horizontal or vertical. These planes are not formed suddenly but slowly develop over a long period.
The movement of rocks along these planes brings about tectonic earthquakes. These faults occur due
to the impact of geological forces. The displacement of plates creates the fracturing of rocks, which
releases a lot of energy. This type of earthquake can be disastrous.
4. Explosion and Man-Made
The interference of man with nature can also become a cause of the earthquake. The
disturbance of crustal balance due to heavy clubbing of water in dams can cause
earthquakes. Nuclear bombing can send specific types of shockwaves throughout the surface of
the earth, which can disturb the natural alignment of tectonic plates. Mining can also cause
disturbance due to the extensive removal of rocks from different areas.
5. Minor Causes
Some minor causes such as landslides, avalanches, the collapse of heavy rocks, etc. can also
cause minor shockwaves. The gases beneath the surface of earth contract and expand, giving
rise to movements in plates beneath the crust. The plutonic earthquake occurs because of
adjustments in rock beds in the interior of the earth’s crust. All these factors correspond to
minor earthquakes, but sometimes these can also vary to moderate earthquakes.
 Effects of Earthquakes

Ground Shaking
Ground shaking is the most familiar effect of earthquakes. It is a result of the passage of seismic waves
through the ground, and ranges from quite gentle in small earthquakes to incredibly violent in large
earthquakes. However, you should note that, while many people are killed in earthquakes, none are
actually killed directly by the shaking -- if you were out in an open field during a magnitude 9
earthquake, you would be extremely scared (I know I would), but your chance of dying would be zero
or damn near it. It is only because we persist in building buildings, highways, and the like that people
are killed; it's our responsibility, not the earthquakes.

Ground Rupture
Ground rupture is another important effect of earthquakes which occurs when the
earthquake movement along a fault actually breaks the Earth's surface. Rupture causes
problems for humans by, well, rupturing things; pipelines, tunnels, aqueducts, railway lines,
roads, and airport runways which cross an area of active rupture can easily be destroyed or
severely damaged.

Landslides
Landslides are caused by earthquakes both by direct rupture and by sustained shaking of
unstable slopes. They can easily destroy buildings in their path, or block roads and railroad
lines, or take hilltop homes with them as they tumble. They even can break down dam on
rivers
Tsunamis
Tsunamis, which are popularly -- and incorrectly -- known as ``tidal waves,'' are a grave hazard to many
parts of the world, particularly around the Pacific Ocean basin. Tsunamis are a series of water waves
caused when the seafloor moves vertically in an earthquake and which can travel vast distances in a
short period of time. Tsunami speeds in the deep ocean have been measured at more than 700 km/hr,
comparable to some jet planes, and when tsunamis reach shallow water near the coast, they can reach
heights of more than 27 meters (90 feet). Remember that tsunamis are a series of waves, and may
start with a gentle withdrawal of water, followed by a very abrupt arriving wave, followed by another
withdrawal, etc. The safest thing to do if you hear a tsunami is coming is to move to higher ground
away from the beach as quickly as possible.

Liquefaction, Subsidence, and Sand Blows/ Sand Volcanoes

Liquefaction and subsidence of the ground are important effects which often are the cause of much
destruction in earthquakes, particularly in unconsolidated ground. Liquefaction is when sediment
grains are literally made to float in groundwater, which causes the soil to lose all its solidity. Subsidence
can then follow as the soil re-compacts. Sand blows, or sand volcanoes, form when pressurized jets of
groundwater break through the surface. They can spray mud and sand over an area of a few meters
across. All of these effects pose a grave danger to buildings, roads, train lines, airport runways, gas
lines, etc.

Fires
Fires are a major source of damage after earthquakes. Ground rupture and liquefaction can easily
rupture natural gas mains and water mains, both contributing to the ignition of fires and hindering the
efforts to control them. Shaking also contributes to starting fires, by knocking down power lines,
spilling flammable liquids from storage containers, and tossing hot coals from barbeques and stoves.
 Ground Breaking Effects of Earthquakes

Tsunami
Landslide
Sand Blows or Sand Volcanoes

Liquefaction and Subsidence

 Ground Rupture

Fires
 MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
Richter Scale: It is the scale by which we can measure the magnitude of earthquake and tell us how
much the ground shook during a quake and how much energy was released. In 1935, Charles Richter
developed the local magnitude scale to measure the magnitude of earthquakes. This information
comes from seismographs, which collect data and directly measure the amount of ground shaking.

Measuring Ground Shaking

The Richter scale runs from 1 - 10 (1 being the least in magnitude and 10 being the greatest), is a
base-10 logarithmic scale, which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of
the seismic waves to an arbitrary, minor amplitude.
This means that for each 1 point in increase on the scale we get 10 times more ground shaking. As
measured with a seismometer, an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking
amplitude 10 times that of an earthquake that registered 4.0, and thus corresponds to a release of
energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake.

The Moment Magnitude Scale

The Richter scale was originally designed to measure medium-sized earthquakes, those between
magnitude 3 and 7, and within a distance of about 400 miles. The moment magnitude scale was
created in 1979 to deal with these issues, but it builds on the Richter scale because it was already so
accurate for small- to medium-sized quakes. The moment magnitude scale is the currently accepted
scale used to measure medium- to large-sized earthquakes.

The Richter scale remains the standard for quakes smaller than 3.5 in magnitude. About 1,000,000
magnitude 2 earthquakes occur each year, compared with only about 1,000 magnitude 5 quakes.
Magnitude 10 earthquakes are extremely rare, occurring less than once a year. Considering that the
energy release of a magnitude 2 quake is equal to about 50 kg of explosive while a magnitude 5
releases energy equivalent to 1,800,000 kg.
MERCALLI SCALE
The Mercalli Intensity Scale is a method of measuring earthquake intensity. It measures
the damage from earthquakes and the observed effects. Lower numbers indicate intensity
likely felt by people and higher numbers indicate damage to structures and buildings.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is still used today.