INTRODUCTION OF FORENSIC

BIOLOGY
CBG445 FORENSIC BIOLOGY
(2 UNITS COURSE)
PROF. O. A. ADEYEMO
Forensic Science –Definition and
scope

The study and

Includes the business
application of
of providing timely,
science (scientific
accurate, and
knowledge and
thorough information
methodology) to
to all levels of
matters of law
decision makers in
(criminal
our criminal justice
investigation and
system
legal problems)
Forensic Science

 The word forensic is derived from the Latin forensis meaning

forum, a public place where, in Roman times, senators and
others debated, performed, and held judicial proceedings.
 In Roman times judicial proceedings were held in the forum
 The modern definition of forensic means to be suitable for
the courts
 Forensics is not just about finding a murderer|
Forensic Science
 Important and necessary aspects

 The practice of scientifically examining physical evidence collected from

the scene of a crime or a person of interest in a crime.

 Every crime takes place at a certain time at a certain place or places and
involves a victim and the person or persons committing the crime.

 The perpetrator may or may not use a weapon.

 Depending upon the case circumstances, the biological material is

transferred between the scene, the victim, the perpetrator and the
weapon.
Forensic scientist

• A forensic scientist is first a scientist.

• When this scientist applies his/her knowledge to assist juries,
judges, and attorneys in criminal and civil cases, he/she is
now a forensic scientist.
Forensic Investigators

• The forensic investigators follow procedure during their

investigation

seizing the crime scene

collection of evidences
forwarding to the laboratories
questioning, and making reports of the statements given by
witnesses, suspect, victim, and scientific officer
produce their concluded report to the court
Forensic biology

 Is the scientific analysis of biological evidence to provide objective

information on legal matters.

 Using technology, forensic biologists collect and analyse biological

evidence/material found on clothing, weapons and other surfaces to
determine the time and cause of death and other crucial information.

 Forensic biologists examine blood and other bodily fluids, hair, bones,
insects and plant and animal remains to help identify the perpetrator.
Forensic biology

 Evidence/items found in a perpetrator’s possession may be

linked to a victim.

 This also applies to the transfer of evidence based on the

principles of exchange material theory, also known as Locard’s
exchange principle, which theorizes that the cross-transfer of
evidence occurs when a perpetrator came in contact with the
victim.
Criminalistics or Criminology?
 Criminalistics
 The scientific examination of physical evidence for legal purposes
 Sometimes this term is used interchangeably with ‘’forensic
science’ It is more specific. It refers to the workings of the crime
laboratory
 Criminology
 Includes the psychological angle: studying the crime scene for
motive, traits, and behavior that will help to interpret the evidence
Criminalistics or Criminology?
 Criminalistics
 Criminalists are the most common form of forensic scientists.
They analyze, identify and interpret a broad range of physical
evidence.

 Using chemicals and various instruments, they discover useful

information for an investigation or trial.
Chronological history of forensic science

11
Chronological history of forensic science

12
Origin of Procedures (Identification of Cause and Manner
of Death: Autopsy
Afterdeath, the body reaches a stage called decomposition by
a process called autolysis
 in this process, the organic substances are broken down into
simpler organic matter.
 To prevent a body from decomposing, it is necessary to deprive the
tissues of moisture and oxygen.
 This can be done by the procedures of mummification.
 This practice had started in ancient Egypt 3500 bce.

13
Origin of Procedures (Identification of Cause and Manner
of Death: Autopsy

Mummification was a ritual practice done by the ancient

Egyptians believing that there is life after death, and the
preserved body is required to live in their next world.
This preserved body is called mummy (Mark 2017).

14
Origin of Procedures (Identification of Cause and Manner
of Death: Autopsy

Those civilizations provided a significant contribution to

the field of forensic under medicine.
This can be considered as an example of autopsy in
history or the procedure that led to the development of
autopsy to determine the cause of death.
 By the thirteenth century, the first literature to determine
cause of death was written by Song Ci in China.

15
History of Important Branches of Forensic Science
There has been a wide range of forensic science and its branches.
Important branches of forensic science and Fathers of different
branches

16
Forensic Entomology

In the year 1235 a villager was stabbed to death, and

the authorities who investigated determined that the
person was murdered with a sickle.

At that time sickles were used for cultivation

purposes, and this fact leads to the suspect (peasant).

To find the sickle used, the investigator asked the

suspected peasants to place their sickles in one
particular open place, and waited for the blowflies to
attract the sickle.

17
Forensic Entomology
The blowflies were attracted to the sickle that contained
traces of blood (which is not visible with our naked eyes)
due to its scent.

 In a crime, it is important to find the cause and manner of

death. Understanding the manner and cause of the crime
may help to link the evidences and suspected persons to
solve a crime.

 This would help us to control the crime in future.

18
Forensic Pathology

During the sixteenth century

the medical practitioners of army found it important to

find the cause and manner of death.

Atthat time, the violent deaths were reported in a huge

number.

A French army surgeon Amboise Pare started studying

about “how the internal organs are affected in the case of
violent death.”
19
Forensic Pathology

Thetwo Italian surgeons Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo

Zacchia started studying the changes that can be seen in
a body because of a disease.

Thisobservation led to the development of modern

pathology.

 Later in the eighteenth century, writings regarding this

topic appeared

20
Forensic Toxicology
In 1773, Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Bell 2009), a Swedish
chemist, developed a chemical test to detect the presence
of arsenic in a dead body.

He independently discovered oxygen, chlorine, and manganese.

He also studied about arsenic acid, molybdic acid, and tungstic
acid.
In1775 (Stewart 1947), he did an experiment that
developed a colorless gas that smells weirdly of garlic that
was evolved alongside the hydrogen when zinc was
added to arsenic that is dissolved in sulfuric acid:

21
Forensic Toxicology

Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Johann Daniel Metzger, and his

revolutionary detecting method is known as Marsh test.

This was a great contribution to the field of “forensic

toxicology” in the cases where arsenic is used as a
poison.
It is a highly sensitive detection method.
 Arsenic in the form of white arsenic trioxide can be
easily implemented into food and drinks, and they are
odorless and difficult to collect.

22
Forensic Toxicology

A Spanish chemist and physician Mathieu Orfila to conduct

the analysis again.

Mathieu Orfila concluded that the Marsh test was not

conducted properly and found out the traces of arsenic in the
sample.

These reports proved Mrs. Lafarge was guilty.

Mathieu Orfila in the nineteenth century wrote a book on

forensic toxicology, and this is the first recorded start of forensic

toxicology 23
Forensic Toxicology
As a part of forensic medicine, he developed a chemical
analysis that was used for the study of asphyxiation, the
decomposition of bodies and exhumation.

In a forensic context, he developed the test to find out the

presence of blood. He used a microscope to assess blood
and semen stains.
Orfilaconducted many studies and concluded that soil
should be analyzed as the part of the procedure of
exhumation cases.
Mathieu Orfila is known as the father of toxicology. He
wrote the book Traite des Poisons that classifies the
poisons favored by the criminals.
24
 Forensic Anthropometry
In1879, Alphonse Bertillon (Sonderegger and Peter 2012)
developed an alternative to fingerprint by developing
anthropological technique called Bertillonage (anthropometry).
Anthropological technique consists of five initial
measurements

head length
head breadth
length of middle finger
length of left foot
 length of the cubit.

25
Forensic Anthropometry

He also used photography along with this measurement

(mug shot).

These two identification methods were combined together

to form an easy system to the law enforcement agency
and to get the images and information immediately.

In 1884, in France, this system was used and 241 repeat
offenders were captured. It started to spread worldwide

26
Forensic Fingerprints
Francis Galton (Sonderegger and Peter 2012) also studied
fingerprint to
seek out hereditary traits and racial difference in fingerprint.
Fingerprints does not change in a lifetime; it remains constant
and he also concluded that no two fingerprints are alike. He
estimated the probability of two people having the same
fingerprint.
In 1892, he published his book on his findings and classified
them into eight categories – plain arch, tented arch, simple
loop, double loop, lateral pocket loop, central pocket loop, plain
whorl, and accidental.
 Galton’s classification system is still used in the twentieth
century, but he couldn’t find any evidence that fingerprint types
were heritable

27
 Forensic Ballistics

He identified a defect in the surface of the bullet that was not
from the barrel or the result of an impact.
 At that time, the people used to manufacture bullets by themselves,
and this made him to believe that the defect in the surface may be
due to the manufacturing defect.
Later, the person was suspected for committing the crime. In
1835. Henry Goddard (Tewari 2000) became the first person to
use physical analysis to link bullet to the murder weapon to
identify the criminals involved.

28
 FORENSIC
SCIENTISTS
Forensic Pathologists
•Pathology is the study of disease.
•Forensic
pathologists perform autopsies to
determine the cause of death and the
circumstances surrounding a person’s death.
•They investigate not only violent deaths, but
also sudden deaths, deaths in police custody,
and death during surgery.
Forensic Pathologists
•They also may visit the scene of the death to
discover what happened at the time of death,
what the person was doing at the time, and the
person’s medical history.

•A forensic pathologist collects evidence from the

body and sends it to a criminalist to analyze.
• Forensic pathology plays an important role in
public health and disease prevention
•Medical doctors
Forensic Anthropologists
• Forensicanthropologists are called in to identify recovered
skeletons and bones and decipher many clues about the person,
such as sex, age, and health.
• Somemake facial reproductions, where they model how a face
may have appeared when the only evidence is a skull
• Theycan also work with pathologists to determine the cause of
death, and by examining insect remains, can determine time
elapsed since death.
• Forensic Anthropologists must have a Ph.D. in anthropology
specializing in skeletal biology
Forensic Engineers
•Forensic Engineers use the science of
engineering for the purpose of the law, mostly
in civil suits but sometimes in criminal cases.
•Concerns itself with accident reconstruction
and causes and origins of fires and explosions

• Common questions they answer include:

– How did the fire start?
– Why did the plane crash?
– How did this car accident happen?
Forensic Psychiatrist
•Forensic Psychiatrists are doctors that
perform assessments of mental illness to
determine innocence by reason of mental
illness.

• They spend a lot of time with lawyers and judges

and are trained to give expert testimony in the
courts.
Toxicologists

•Toxicology is the study of harmful effects of

chemicals or drugs on living systems.
• Forensic toxicologists answer the question, "Did
prescription or illegal drugs and/or alcohol lead or
contribute to the person's death or intoxication?"
•This is accomplished by performing chemistry tests
on body fluid and tissue samples and interpreting the
findings.
Forensic Dentists
•Forensic dentists are called to identify human remains
of natural disasters, terrorist activities, and
missing/unknown persons.
•They also analyze bite marks in cases of rape,
assault, or homicide, and can compare this evidence
to dental evidence from a suspect through digital
imaging.
Other Forensic Specialists
• Speech scientist- analyzing voice patterns
• Artist/sculptor- facial reconstruction
• Ballistics analyst- wound interpretation
• Marinescientist- investigation of crimes against the
environment
• Computer analyst- unearth details of crime through
computer technology
 Basic Services in a Crime Laboratory

 Physical science unit

 Chemistry
 Physics
 Geology
 Biology unit
 Firearms and ballistics unit
 Document examination unit
 Photography unit
 Optional Services of a Crime Lab

 Crime labs can be government-run at the federal, state, or local level, or

they can be private consulting businesses.
 Toxicology unit
 Latent fingerprint unit
 Polygraph unit
 Voiceprint analysis unit
 Evidence collection unit
 Engineering
Specialty Services
Forensic pathology Geology
Forensic anthropology Environmental science
Forensic entomology Polygraphy
Forensic psychiatry Voiceprint analysis
Forensic odontology
Forensic engineering
Cybertechnology
The Locard Principle

• Edmond Locard (1877–1966)

 French professor
 Considered the father of criminalistics
 Built the world’s first forensic laboratory
in France in 1910
 Locard Exchange Principle:
Whenever two objects come into
contact with each other, there is
always a transfer of material.
 When a criminal comes in contact
with a person or object, a dual
exchange of particles takes place
Locard Principle
•At your desk
– What are you in contact with?
– What could transfer to you?
– What will you leave behind?
– How can you prevent transfers?
– What could be traced to you?
– Other than eyewitnesses what evidence is here at
school that you were here today?
– Is it possible not to leave evidence?
– Could covering your tracks leave evidence as well?
Crime Scene Team
A group of professional investigators, each trained in a variety of
special disciplines
Team members:
First police officer on the scene
Medics (if necessary)
Investigators
Medical examiner or representative (if necessary)
Photographer and/or field evidence technician
Lab experts:
• pathologist serologist
• DNA expert toxicologist
• forensic odontologist forensic anthropologist
• forensic psychologist forensic entomologist
• firearm examiner bomb and arson experts
• document and handwriting experts fingerprint expert
Scientific Method: as it pertains to criminalistics

1. Observe a problem or questioned evidence and

collect objective data.
2. Consider a hypothesis or possible solution.
3. Examine, test, and then analyze the evidence.
4. Determine the significance of the evidence.
5. Formulate a theory based on evaluation of the
significance of the evidence.
DNA in crime scene investigation

Because the DNA of all people is different we can:

 Identify or exclude a suspect

 Identify missing persons

POSSIBLE
OUTCOMES
OF A DNA
RESULT
Possible outcomes of a DNA result

Exclusion – no match
Suspect 1

Suspect 2

Inclusion
Match

Evidence
 Federal Rules of Evidence

• For scientific evidence to be admitted in a court of law,

it must be:

• Probative: actually proves something

• Material: addresses an issue that is relevant to the
particular crime
Forensics in Court

• There are five main stakeholders in the courtroom:

• Prosecutor

• Defense (representing the defendant)

• Forensic Scientist
• Judge

• Police officer/Detective
Role of the Prosecutor

• Gives legal advise in investigations

• Sometimes writes or assists writing warrants, etc.
• Reviews case for potential trial issues
• - Plea bargaining option
• Discovery – provides Brady material
• Prepares case
• Defends evidentiary challenges – based on case law
• Subpoenas witnesses
• Introduce evidence
• Question witnesses – also establishes expert witnesses
Role of the Defense
• Monitor’s defendants rights in pre-trial process
• Reviews case for potential trial issues
• May negotiate plea bargain
• Prepares case
• Makes evidentiary challenges – based on case law
• Subpoenas witnesses – if any, mostly alibi
• Introduce evidence – if any
• Question witnesses – Cross of prosecution case, may
introduce counter testimony with own expert witnesses
What are subpoenas?
• A subpoena is a court order that requires a witness to go to court to give evidence
and/or bring documents. We arrange for subpoenas to be served on victims and
witnesses who have to give evidence in court.

• If you are served with a subpoena, make sure you read it carefully. It will tell you
what you have to do.
• If the subpoena says you must go to court and give evidence and you don't go, the
court may issue a warrant ordering your arrest and for you to be brought before the
court.
• Similarly, if the subpoena says you must take documents to court and you don't
take them or send them, the court may issue a warrant ordering your arrest and for
you to be brought before the court. The court will require you to provide the
required documents.
• If you receive a subpoena and are not sure what you have to do, talk to a lawyer
for legal advice.
Forensic Scientist
• May collect evidence
• Creates/maintains chain of evidence
• Processes evidence
• Interprets evidence
• Prepares reports
• Follows Constitutional requirements
• Often communicates with investigator about case
• Often communicates with prosecutor before trial
• May help prepare posters/materials for court
• Testifies to jury about evidence
Judge
• Researches case law
• Reviews motions
• Make decisions on evidentiary challenges
• Makes decisions on expert witnesses
• Makes decisions on details of case such as crime
scene photos being used (shock effect on jury)
• Monitors trial
Police/Investigator
• Manages crime scene
• Oversees evidence collection – often done by officer
• Follows up on leads, questions witnesses
• Makes arrests
• Writes warrants
• Maintains extensive reports and notes
• May assist prosecutor with case preparation
• Prepares for court
Admissibility of Evidence
• The Frye Standard
• From the 1923 case Frye v. United States
• Scientific evidence is allowed into the courtroom if it is generally
accepted by the relevant scientific community.

• The Frye standard does not offer any guidance on reliability. The
evidence is presented in the trial and the jury decides if it can be
used.

• “the principle…must be sufficiently established to have

gained general acceptance in the particular field in which
it belongs.”
 Admissibility of Evidence

• The Daubert Ruling

• From the 1993 case Daubert v. Dow
• The judge decides if the evidence can be entered into the trial.
Admissibility is determined by:
Whether the theory or technique can be tested
Whether the science has been offered for peer review
Whether the rate of error is acceptable
Whether the method at issue enjoys widespread acceptance
Whether the theory or technique follows standards
The Expert Witness
• The expert witness presents scientific evidence in court. He/She will:
1. Establish credibility by citing:
– educational degrees
– participation in special courses
– membership in professional societies
– published articles and books
– years of experience

2. Evaluate evidence: Subject to cross-examination

3. Render an opinion about the evidence. The judge may accept or
reject the opinion’s significance.
• Only courtroom actor allowed to express an opinion
Facets of Guilt
To prove a case, the “MMO” must be
established; it must be shown that the
suspect had:
Motive—person had a reason to do the crime (not
necessary to prove in a court of law)
Means—person had the ability to do the crime
Opportunity—person can be placed at the crime
scene
Strong Whiskey

A man took a slug of what he thought

was whiskey. It wasn’t; it was
concentrated sulfuric acid!

Was a crime committed?

ASSIGNMENTS
• 1.
Who is a Wildlife Forensic Scientist. What types of items do you think
they would try to collect and analyze?
• Whichforensic unit does the analysis of paper, ink, indented writings,
burned/ charred papers and suicide notes?
• List five civil laws.
• What is “The Innocence Project” What is a false confession, how
often do they occur, and why do they occur? What is “Forensic
Science Misconduct”, and what are the two most common types of it?