Course:

Fluid Mechanics-II (CHE-224)

Instructor:

Dr. Nouman Ahmad

Assistant Professor
Email: [email protected]
Room#: 324, SCME

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 Drag

• Force in the direction of flow exerted by the

fluid on the solid is called drag.
Form Drag

• Figure shows a stationary smooth sphere of diameter

DP situated in a stream, whose velocity far away from the
sphere is u(infinity) to the right. Except at very low velocities,
when the flow is entirely laminar, the wake immediately
downstream from the sphere is unstable, and turbulent
vortices will constantly be shed from various locations round
the sphere. Because of turbulence, the pressure on the
downstream side of the sphere will never fully recovered to
that on the upstream side, and there will be a form drag to
the right of the sphere. (For purely laminar flow, the
pressure recovery is complete, and the form drag is zero.)
 Viscous Drag

• In addition, because of the velocity gradients

that exist near the sphere, there will also be a
net viscous drag (also called as wall drag) to
the right. The sum of these two effects is
known as the (total) drag force, FD. A similar
drag occurs for spheres and other objects
moving through an otherwise stationary fluid -
it is the relative velocity that counts.
 Drag Coefficient

• Form drag can be minimized by forcing

separations toward the rear of the body. This
is accomplished by stream lining. (see figure)
 Flow Regimes in Fluidized Bed

• Fixed Bed Operation: When the drag force exerted by the fluid on the solid
particles is less then the gravitational force exerted by the solid particles in the
downward direction the fluid passes through void and this is known as fixed bed
operation
• Fluidized Bed Condition: A time comes when the drag force exerted by the fluid
become equal to the gravitational force (due to weight of particles) the condition
is known as fluidization.
• Aggregative Bubbling: On further increasing the gas velocity bubbles of gases are
formed a turbulent mixing starts of fluid and catalyst. Aggregative bubbling:
• Slugging Process: As the superficial velocity of air is further increased slugs are
formed and the gas phases escapes through the channels Slugging Operation
• Pneumatic Conveying : Further increasing the fluidization velocity pneumatic
transport starts and it is used only for transportation not for fluidization reactions
other wise catalyst will come out the reactor tube. Pneumatic conveying
• Example A simplified every-day-life example of a
gas-solid fluidized bed would be a hot-air popcorn
popper. Because of the intense mixing of the
particles, a uniform temperature of the kernels
throughout the chamber is maintained, minimizing
the amount of burnt popcorn. After popping, the
larger popcorn particles encounter increased
aerodynamic drag because of there low density
which pushes them out of the chamber and into a
bowl
Types of fluidization behavior in fluidized beds

• In a packed bed of small particles, when a fluid enters at

sufficient velocity from the bottom and passes up through the
particles, the particles are pushed upward and the bed expands
and becomes fluidized.
• Two general types of fluidization can occur :
• Particulate fluidization
• Bubbling fluidization

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Particulate fluidization

• In particulate fluidization, as the fluid velocity is increased, the bed

continues to expand and remains homogeneous for a time.

• The particles move farther apart and their motion becomes more
rapid.

• The average bed density at a given velocity is the same in all regions
of the bed.

• An example of this type of fluidization is catalytic cracking catalysts

fluidized by gases.

• Particulate fluidization can also be observed when liquids are used to

fluidize the bed.

• Advantage: Promoting intimate contact between the gas and solids.

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Bubbling/Aggregative fluidization

• In bubbling fluidization, the gas passes through the bed as voids or

bubbles, which may contain few particles.

• In this case, only a small percentage of the gas passes in the spaces
between individual particles.

• As the gas velocity is increased, the expansion of the bed is minimal.

• Since most of the gas is used in forming bubbles, little contact occurs
between the individual particles and the bubbles.

• The bubbles tend to coalesce and grow as they rise in the bed.

• If the column is small in diameter with a deep bed, bubbles can

become large, filling the entire cross section and traveling up the
tower separated by slugs of solids.
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16
 Applications

Refinery
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
(FCC)

Power
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustor
(CFBC)

gas-solid flow
Cement
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 Multi-scale structures

Macro-scale

Meso-scales

Micro-scale

r0
0
0

particle particle-cluster/bubbles reactor

 Different flow regime in fluidization

Flow regime map

Meso-scale
structures

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Minimum velocity and porosity for particulate
fluidization
• When a fluid flows upward through a packed bed of particles at low
velocities, the particles remain stationary.

• As the fluid velocity is increased, the pressure drop increases

according to the Ergun equation .

• Upon further increases in velocity, conditions finally occur where the

force of the pressure drop times the cross-sectional area equals the
gravitational force on the mass of particles (also known as the “weight
of the bed”)

• At this point, the particles begin to move and the onset of fluidization
or minimum fluidization is reached. The fluid velocity at which
fluidization begins is known as the minimum fluidization velocity (U mf).

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Minimum porosity for fluidization (εmf)

• The porosity of the bed when true fluidization occurs is the minimum
porosity for fluidization, (εmf).

• The bed expands to this voidage or porosity before particle motion

appears.

• This minimum voidage can be determined experimentally by

subjecting the bed to a rising gas stream and measuring the height of
the bed Lmf (m).

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Pressure drop versus fluid velocity for packed and
fluidized beds

• The pressure drop increases as the gas velocity is increased until the
onset of minimum fluidization.

• Then, as the velocity is further increased, the pressure drop

decreases very slightly, and then it remains practically unchanged as
the bed continues to expand or increase in porosity with increases in
velocity.

• At high velocities, the bed may resemble a boiling liquid. As the bed
expands with increasing velocity, it continues to retain its top
horizontal surface.

• Eventually, as the velocity is increased much further, entrainment (or

loss) of particles from the actual fluidized bed surface becomes
appreciable.
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Background Two-Fluid Model (TFM)
Mass conservation

 t  g  g    g  g v g  0 This slide will Not be
 Included in the exam, just
        v  0 for reference
 t s s s s s

Momentum conservation

 t  g  g v g    g  g v g v g    g p   g   g  g g - FD

    v     v v    p      g + F
 t s s s s s s s s s s s D

Stress-strain tensor
 2 
 
 q  q q vq  vqT   q  q   q  v q I (q=g, s)
 3 
Granular temperature
3  
  Θ    s s s s   ps I   s  : v s  k s  s     3 Θ s
 v Θ 
2  t
s s s

Ps, s and s are closed by KTGF
Anderson and Jackson 1967
Ansys Fluent 14.0.0
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 How to establish drag model?

• Empirical or experiment correlations This slide will Not be

• Ergun, Wen & Yu, et al. Included in the exam, just
Suitable for homogeneous systems for reference

• Variational approach via stability condition

• EMMS

• Statistics from DNS or fine-grid simulations (FGS)

• Filtered models of Sundaresan’s group (Andrews et. al, Agrawal et al, Igci et.
al)
• Correlations based on LBM (Benzi et. al, Chen andDoolen, )
Limited to computational cost, a periodic domain employed (Local equilibrium)

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This slide will Not be
Included in the exam, just
for reference

26
This slide will Not be
Included in the exam, ju
for reference

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