Introduction to Unit Operations
and Unit Processes
Any Chemical production may be resolved into a co-
oriented series of Unit operations and Unit processes.
The term Unit operations involved to those techniques or
operations in which the changes are primarily physical for
large scale production.
Unit processes involve chemical changes and imply
commercialization of chemical reactions under
economically profitable conditions.
Unit operations
Unit operations are caused by the transfer of energy, a classification
based on the mode of energy transport may be suggested as follows:
Mechanical Electrochemical Thermal
Sedimentation Electro-dialysis Condensation
Filtration Electro-osmosis Evaporation
Centrifugation Electro-phoresis Crystallization
Crushing and Electro- deionization Drying
grinding
Flotation Distillation
Conveying Extraction
Mixing Gas absorption
Unit operations
Unit operations classified based on the phases of operation as
follows:
Solid-liquid Liquid-liquid Solid-Solid Gas-liquid
Sedimentation Extraction Conveying Condensation
Settling
Filtration Mixing Mixing Evaporation
Centrifugation Osmosis Crushing and Drying
grinding
Crystallization Sizing Distillation
Flotation Screening Gas absorption
Adsorption Mixing
humidification
Mechanical Operations:
Settling:
Coarse Solid particles separated from liquid by gravity attaining
terminal velocity following Newton’s law
Sedimentation:
In sedimentation, the micron and fine sized solid particles are
separated from the liquid by gravitational forces using flocculants
acting on particles of various sizes and densities.
Equipment : Thickener
SEDIMENTATION
Filtration:
Filtration involves the separation of solids from liquids effected by
passing the slurry through a porous medium. The pressure difference
across the filter medium cause the fluid to flow through the small
pores of a filter cloth or screen which blocks the passage of the larger
solid particles.
Screening:
Screening refers to the separation of solids on the basis of size by
means of screens of known apertures. The material that stays on a
given screen is the oversize of that screen and that passing through it
is the undersize.-Eg: separating silica from ore
FILTRATION
Flotation: Flotation is a process where the grains of one or more
constituents are in a mixture are selectively caused to rise to the
surface by the action of air bubble. Separation of a mixture using
forth flotation methods depends on the varying surface properties of
the materials involved. –three contact process-gas, solid, liquid
Mixing: Many operations in processing industries are dependent on
effective agitation and mixing of fluids. Agitation usually refers to
forcing a fluid by mechanical means to flow in a circulatory pattern
inside a tank. Mixing may involve gases, liquids, or solids, in any
possible combination of two or more constituents.-Paddle type, turbine,
propellor type repellers for agitating. Various types of flow patterns- radial or axial flow
Crushing and grinding: are used for subdividing large solid
particles to smaller ones. In general, grinding means subdividing to a
finer degree than crushing.
Electrochemical operations
Electrodialysis: In dialysis the small solute molecules in one liquid
phase diffuse readily, because of concentration differences, through a
porous membrane to a second liquid phase.
Passage of liquid molecules through the membrane is more difficult.
In electrodialysis, separation of ions occur by imposing an emf
difference across the membrane.
Electrodialysis is another membrane separation technology in which the
ionized species are selectively to pass through an ion-exchange
membranes by means of an external applied electric field.
Red is cation exchange membrane(only allow cation). Blue is
anion exchange membrane(only allow anion)
-employed for brackish water desalination.
-Reduces the energy consumption
-scaling(deposition) easy to remove through chemical cleaning and change of
polarity
-cost of electrode and membrane is disadvantage-polymerized membrane is
hard to make, short lifespan
Electro-osmosis: When an emf is applied, there is a
movement of the diffuse and mobile electric charges
along with the liquid. The passage of liquid through a
porous diaphragm under the influence of an applied
electric field is known as electro-osmosis.
In a colloidal dispersion at solid-liquid interface, a
charged double layer is formed between the solid
surface and the surrounding dispersion medium.
During electroosmotic flow, it becomes an important
consideration with the increased surface area-to-volume
ratio associated with the flow velocity of liquid in smaller
diameter capillaries.
Electroosmotic flow occurs because the walls of the capillary tubing
are electrically charged. The surface of a silica capillary contains large
numbers of silanol groups (–SiOH). At pH levels greater than
approximately 3- 4, the silanol groups get ionized to form negatively
charged silanate ions (–SiO–).
Electrophoresis: (movement of solid in a liquid unlike osmotic
which is movement of liquid) When a hydrophobic colloidal solution
of dyestuff or protein solution, placed in an electric field, the
particles move definitely in one direction or another. This migration
of colloidal particles under the influence of an electric potential is
called electrophoresis.
THERMAL ENERGY OPERATIONS
Humidification: The process in which the moisture or water vapor is
added to the air without changing its dry bulb (DB) temperature is called
humidification process.
In humidification the vapor content in a gas stream can be increased
by passing the gas over a liquid which then evaporates into the gas
stream.
Eg. Cooling Tower, Water Fountains
Drying: Drying, in general, means the removal of relatively small
amounts of water or other liquid from a solid or slurry. -milk powder. Rotary
dryers are there(granular materials are obtained)
Crystallization: Crystallization is a process where solid particles are
formed from a liquid solution. The solution is cooled until the solute
concentration becomes higher than its solubility at supersaturated
condition. The solute then comes out of solution itself as pure as
crystals being occurred.
Thermal energy based operations
Evaporation: In an evaporation, a solution is concentrated by boiling
off the solvent. Usually the desired product is the concentrated
solution, but occasionally the evaporated solvent is also the primary
product.
(for eg.), in the evaporation of sea water to yield potable water. In a
majority of cases, evaporation refers to the removal of water from an
aqueous solution.
Distillation: It is an operation where the components of a liquid
mixture containing miscible and volatile substances are separated by
partial vaporization by virtue of differences in vapor pressure. The
concentration of the more volatile constituents of the liquid mixture is
higher in the vapor than in the feed solution.
Unit processes
It involves chemical conversions leading to synthesis of various
useful products and provide basic information regarding the
reaction temperature and pressure, extent of chemical conversions,
yield of product, nature of reaction whether endothermic or
exothermic, type of catalyst used.
Examples:
Alkylation, Amination, Ammoxidation, Calcination, Chlorination,
Carbonation, Catalytic cracking, Catalytic reforming, Dehydration,
Desulphurisation, Estertification, Trans Esterification,
Fermentation, Alkylation, hydro-electrolysis, Halogenation,
Hydrolysis, Hydration, Isomerisation, Methanation, Thermal and
steam cracking, Pyrolysis, Polymerisation, Dehydrogenation, Steam
reforming, Gasification, Sulphonation etc.
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