Academic Session 2025-26
ODD Semester Jul-Dec 2025
UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE &
ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Computer Science
5th Semester
Computer Networks(23CST-302/ 23ITT-302)
Unit No. 2 Chapter No. 6 Lecture No.23
Topic : Network Layer: Design Issues, IP Addressing – Classless and Class full Addressing
Faculty Name: Monika(E9911) Designation: Assistant Professor
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Learning Objectives & Outcomes
Learning Objective
To understand Network layer functions and Addressing Mechanism.
Learning Outcome
Students will be able to learn
• Network layer Design issues
• IP Addressing- Class full & Classless Addressing
Network Layer Design Issues
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Network Layer Design Issues
• Store-and-forward packet switching
• Services provided to transport layer
• Implementation of connectionless service
• Implementation of connection-oriented service
• Comparison of virtual-circuit and datagram networks
Network Layer Design Issues
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1. Store-and-forward packet switching
• A host with a packet to send transmits it to the nearest router.
• The packet is stored there until it has fully arrived
• Then it is forwarded to the next router along the path until it reaches
the destination host
Network Layer Design Issues
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2. Services provided to transport layer
The network layer provides services to the transport layer at the
network layer/transport layer interface.
• Services independent of router technology.
• Transport layer shielded from number, type, topology of routers.
• Network addresses available to transport layer use uniform
numbering plan even across LANs and WANs
Network Layer Design Issues
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3. Implementation of connectionless service
• If connectionless service is offered, packets are injected into the network
individually and routed independently of each other.
• No advance setup is needed. In this context, the packets are frequently
called datagrams (in analogy with telegrams) and the network is called a
datagram network.
A’s table (initially) A’s table (later) C’s Table E’s Table
Network Layer Design Issues
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3. Implementation of connection-oriented service
• If connection-oriented service is used, a path from the source router all the way to the destination router
must be established before any data packets can be sent. This connection is called a VC (virtual circuit),
and the network is called a virtual-circuit network.
• When a connection is established, a route from the source machine to the destination machine is chosen
as part of the connection setup and stored in tables inside the routers.
• When the connection is released, the virtual circuit is also terminated.
A’s table C’s table (later) E’s Table
Network Layer Design Issues
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5. Comparison of virtual-circuit and datagram networks
IP Addressing
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IP Address
• An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique string of
numbers assigned to each device connected to a computer network
that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
• It serves as an identifier that allows devices to send and receive data
over the network, ensuring that this data reaches the correct
destination.
Example: 192.168.1.1
Format of IP Address
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• An IPv4 address is written as four numbers separated by periods, like this: 192.168.1.1.
Each number can range from 0 to 255.
• It is divided into two parts: Network ID and Host ID.
Notations
• There are two notations in which the IP address is written, dotted decimal and hexadecimal
notation.
• Dotted Decimal Notation
• Hexadecimal Notation
-The value of any segment (byte) is between 0 and 255 (both included).
-No zeroes are preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).
Format of IP Address
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Dotted Decimal Notation
Hexadecimal Notation
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Class full Vs Classless Addressing
Classfull and Classless addressing are methods used in networking to
manage IP addresses.
• Classful addressing divides IP addresses into fixed classes (A, B, C, D,
E), each with predefined ranges.
• Classless addressing, also known as CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing), offers more flexibility by allowing addresses to be subdivided
into smaller blocks called subnets.
This flexibility helps optimize address allocation and supports the growth
of the internet by efficiently managing IP address resources.
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Classful Addressing
• It was introduced in 1981, with classful routing.
• IPv4 addresses were divided into 5 classes(A to E), each with a
predetermined range.
• Classful addressing was inflexible and led to inefficiencies in
address allocation, which prompted the development of classless
addressing (CIDR) for more efficient use of IP address space.
• Classes A-C: unicast addresses
• Class D: multicast addresses
• Class E: reserved for future use
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Classful Addressing
• The class of an IP address determines the network portion and the
host portion based on its class-specific subnet mask.
Classful Addressing
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Class A Address
• In a class A address, the first bit of the first octet is always '0'.
• Thus, class A addresses range from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255(as
01111111 in binary converts to 127 in decimal).
• The first 8 bits or the first octet denote the network portion and the
rest 24 bits or the 3 octets belong to the host portion. Its Subnet
mask is 255.0.0.0. Therefore, the actual range of class A addresses
is: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
• Example: 10.1.1.1
• Exception -127.X.X.X is reserved for loopback
- 0.X.X.X is reserved for default network
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Class B Address
• IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-sized
networks.
• The network ID is 16 bits long.
• The host ID is 16 bits long.
• The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10.
• The remaining 14 bits are used to determine the network ID.
• The 16 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network.
• The default subnet mask for class B is 255.255.x.x.
• Class B has a total of: 2^14 = 16384 network address
2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
• IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 –191.255.255.255.
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Class C Address
• IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
• The network ID is 24 bits long.
• The host ID is 8 bits long.
• The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C is always set to 110.
• The remaining 21 bits are used to determine the network ID.
• The 8 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network.
• The default subnet mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
• Class C has a total of:
• 2^21 = 2097152 network address
• 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
• IP addresses belonging to class C range from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.
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Class D Address
• IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting.
• The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D is always set to 1110. The
remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.
• Class D does not possess any subnet mask. IP addresses belonging to class D range from 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255.
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Class E Address
• IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E range from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255. This class doesn’t have any subnet
mask. The higher-order bits of the first octet of class E are always set to 1111.
IP Addressing
Range of Special IP Addresses
● 169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link-local addresses
127.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255 : Loop-back addresses
0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8: used to communicate within the current network.
Rules for Assigning Host ID
Host IDs are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID is assigned based on the following
rules:
● Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.
● A host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used to
represent the network ID of the IP address.
● Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is reserved as a
broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that particular network.
IP Addressing
Rules for Assigning Network ID
● Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID, as all host
on the same physical network is assigned the same network ID. The network ID is assigned based
on the following rules:
• The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to the class A address and is reserved
for internal loopback functions.
• All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and therefore,
cannot be used.
• All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network and are not
routed and therefore, aren’t used.
Summary of Classful Addressing
Problems With Classful Addressing
● The problem with this classful addressing method is that millions of class A
addresses are wasted, many of the class B addresses are wasted, whereas,
the number of addresses available in class C is so small that it cannot cater
to the needs of organizations. Class D addresses are used for multicast
routing and are therefore available as a single block only. Class E addresses
are reserved.
● Since there are these problems, Classful networking was replaced by
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993.
Classless Addressing
● Classless Addressing or Classless Inter-Domain Routing was introduced in
1993 to replace classful addressing. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is
a method for efficiently allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol
(IP) packets.
● CIDR allows for variable-length subnet masks (VLSM). This means that
networks can be divided into smaller, more flexible subnets according to
their specific needs, rather than being constrained by predefined class
boundaries.
Classless Addressing
● CIDR Notation
● In CIDR subnet masks are denoted by /X. For example a subnet of
255.255.255.0 would be denoted by /24. To work a subnet mask in CIDR,
we have to first convert each octet into its respective binary value. For
example, if the subnet is of 255.255.255.0. then :
First Octet
● 255 has 8 binary 1's when converted to binary Second Octet
● 255 has 8 binary 1's when converted to binary Third Octet
● 255 has 8 binary 1's when converted to binary Fourth Octet
● 0 has 0 binary 1's when converted to binary
Classless Addressing
● Therefore, in total there are 24 binary 1's, so the subnet mask is /24.
● While creating a network in CIDR, a person has to make sure that the masks
are contiguous, i.e. a subnet mask like 10111111.X.X.X can't exist. With
CIDR, we can create Variable Length Subnet Masks, leading to less wastage
of IP addresses. It is not necessary that the divider between the network
and the host portions is at an octet boundary. For example, in CIDR a subnet
mask like 255.224.0.0 or 11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000 can
exist.
Summary of the Lecture
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• The network layer handles key functions like routing, addressing, and packet
forwarding across networks.
- Design issues include routing efficiency, congestion control, and
internetworking between different network types.
• IP addressing is crucial for identifying devices and directing traffic.
- Classful addressing divides IP addresses into fixed classes (A, B, C),
which can waste space.
- Classless addressing (CIDR) allows flexible allocation, improving
efficiency and scalability.
Next Lecture
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• Sub-netting. Super Netting,IPv4 & IPv6; Packet Formats & their
comparison
FAQ’s
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Q1: What are the main design issues of the network layer?
Q2: What is IP addressing and why is it important?
Q3: What is classful IP addressing?
Q4: What are the drawbacks of classful addressing?
Q5: What is classless addressing (CIDR) and how does it work?
References/ Articles/ Videos
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References
• Computer Networks, Tanenbaum, Andrew, Fifth Edition, PHI.
• Data Communication and Networking, Behrouz A. Forouzan, Fourth
Edition.Larry
Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R6B08tXfxs8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAjfUc7Tt24
Faculty-curated videos, NPTEL, Coursera, 30
LinkedIn, or other relevant learning
resources
• NPTEL CN COURSE
• https://www.coursera.org/learn/introduction-to-networking-nvidia
Class-Wise Feedback
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Thank You
For queries
Email: [email protected]
