Computed Tomography

IMAGE SYSTEM DESIGN

Dr Saoud Arshad
(MBBS) Lecturer
UIRSMIT Faculty of Allied Health Science
The University of Lahore
 INTRODUCTION
 Tomography literally means
slice view of the patient.
 Computed tomography
generates images in transaxial
sections, i.e. perpendicular to
the axis of rotation of the x-
ray tube about the body and
generally perpendicular to the
craniocaudal.
 What is
CT
Computed tomography (CT) scan
machines uses X-rays , a powerful form
of electromagnetic energy . CT combines
X radiation and radiation detectors
coupled with a computer to create cross
sectional image of any part of the body
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY:
 First-generation imaging system: translate and rotate, pencil
beam, single detector, 5-minute imaging time.
 First-generation CT imaging systems can be considered a
demonstration project. They proved the feasibility of the functional
marriage of the source-detector assembly, mechanical gantry
motion, and the computer
to produce an image.
 Second-generation imaging system: translate and rotate, fan
beam, detector array, 30-second imaging time.
 One disadvantage of the fan beam is the increased radiation
intensity that occurs toward the edges of the beam because of
body shape. This is compensated for with the use of a “bow tie”
filter.
Second-generation computed tomography imaging
systems operated in the translate and rotate mode
with a multiple detector array intercepting a fan-
shaped x-ray
beam.
 The principal advantage of the second-generation CT imaging
system was speed. These imaging systems consisted of five to 30
detectors in the detector assembly; therefore, shorter imaging
times were possible.
 The principal limitation of second-generation CT imaging systems
was examination time. Because of the complex mechanical motion
of translation and rotation and the enormous mass involved in the
gantry, most
units were designed for imaging times of 20 seconds or longer. This
limitation was overcome by third-generation CT imaging
systems.
Profiles of two x-ray beams used in computed
tomography (CT) imaging. With the fan-
shaped beam of
second generation, a bow-tie filter is used to
equalize the
radiation intensity that reaches the detector
array. For
first generation CT, a pencil x-ray beam is
used.
 The third-generation CT imaging system uses a
curvilinear array that contains many detectors and a fan
beam. The number of detectors and the width of the fan
beam—between 30 and 60 degrees—are both substantially
larger than for second-generation imaging systems.
 In third-generation CT imaging systems, the fan beam and
the detector array view the entire patient at all times.
 The curvilinear detector array produces a constant source-
to-detector path length, which is an advantage for good
image reconstruction. This feature of the third generation
detector assembly also allows for better x-ray beam
collimation and reduces the effect of scatter radiation.
 One of the principal disadvantages of third-generation CT
imaging systems is the occasional appearance of ring
artifacts. If any single detector or bank of detectors
malfunctions, the acquired signal or lack there of results
in a ring on the reconstructed image.
 These ring artifacts were troublesome with early third
generation CT imaging systems. Software-corrected image
reconstruction algorithms now remove such artifacts.

Third-generation computed
tomography
imaging systems operate in the rotate-
only mode with a fan x-ray beam and a
multiple detector array revolving
concentrically around the patient.
 Ring artifacts can occur in third-
generation
computed tomography imaging
systems because each detector views
an annulus (ring) of anatomy during
the examination. The malfunction of a
single detector can result in the ring
artifact.

Third-generation imaging system: rotate and

rotate, fan beam, detector array, sub second
imaging time, ring artifacts.
 The fourth-generation design for CT imaging systems
incorporates a rotate and stationary configuration. The x-ray
source rotates, but the detector assembly does not.
 Radiation detection is accomplished through a fixed circular
array of detectors, which contains as many as 4000
individual elements.
 The x-ray beam is fan shaped with characteristics similar to
those of
third-generation fan beams. These units are capable of
subsecond imaging times, can accommodate variable slice
thickness through automatic prepatient collimation, and
have the image manipulation capabilities of
earlier imaging systems.
 The fixed detector array of fourth-
generation CT imaging systems does not
result in a constant beam path from the
source to all detectors, but it does allow
each detector to be calibrated and its
signal normalized for
each image, as was possible with
second-generation imaging systems.
Fourth-generation imaging systems were
developed because they are free of ring
artifacts.
 Fourth-generation imaging system: Fourth-generation computed tomography
rotate and stationary, fan beam, imaging systems operate with a rotating
detector array, subsecond imaging x-ray source and stationary detectors.
time.
Components of a complete
computed tomography imaging
system.
IMAGING SYSTEM DESIGN
There are three major components of a CT
imaging system: the operating console, the
computer, and the gantry. Each of these major
components has several subsystems.
Operating Console
Computed tomography imaging systems can be
equipped with two or three consoles. One
console is used by the CT radiologic technologist
to operate the imaging system.
Another console may be available for a
technologist to post process images to annotate
patient data on the image (e.g., hospital
identification, name, patient number, age,
gender) and to provide identification for each
image (e.g., number, technique, couch position).
This second monitor also allows the operator to
view the resulting image before transferring it to
the physician’s viewing console.
A

Third console may be available for the
physician to view the images and
manipulate image contrast, size, and
general visual appearance. This is in addition
to several remote imaging stations.
Functions: The operating console contains
meters and controls for selection of proper
imaging technique factors, for proper mechanical
movement of the gantry and the
patient couch, and for the use of computer
commands that allow image reconstruction and
transfer. The physician’s viewing console accepts
the reconstructed image from the operator’s
console and displays it for viewing and diagnosis.
 A typical operating console contains controls and
monitors for the various technique factors.
Operation is usually in excess of 120 to 140 kVp,
although some recent work supports reducing
patient radiation dose by using a lower kVp. The
maximum mA is usually 400 mA and is modulated
(varied) during imaging according to patient
thickness to minimize the patient radiation dose.
 The thickness of the tissue slice to be imaged also can be adjusted. Nominal
thicknesses are 0.5 to 5 mm. Slice thickness is selected from the console by
adjustment of
the automatic collimator and by selection of various rows of the detector
assembly.

 Controls also are provided for automatic movement and for indexing of the
patient support couch. This allows the operator to program for Z-axis
location, tissue volume to be imaged, and spiral pitch.

 Physician’s Work Station. This console allows the physician to call up any
previous image and manipulate that image to optimize diagnostic
information. The manipulative controls provide for contrast and brightness
adjustments, magnification techniques, region of
interest (ROI) viewing, and use of online computer software packages.

This software may include programs designed to generate plots of CT

numbers along any preselected axis, computation of mean and standard.
 It can also be values in an ROI, subtraction techniques, and planar and
volumetric quantitative analysis. Reconstruction of images along
coronal, sagittal, and oblique planes is also possible.

 The physician’s viewing console is usually remote from the CT suite and
is used for postprocessing tasks for all digital images. It can also be
linked to a picture archiving and communication systems (PACS)
network.
 Computer
The computer is a unique subsystem of the CT imaging system.
Depending on the image format, as many as 250,000 equations must be
solved simultaneously; thus, a large computing capacity is required .

 At the heart of the computer used in CT are the microprocessor and the
primary memory. These determine the time between the end of imaging and
the appearance of an image—the reconstruction time.
 efficiency of an examination is influenced greatly by reconstruction
time, especially when a large number of image slices are involved .

 Many CT imaging systems use an array processor instead of a

multiprocessor for image reconstruction. The array processor does
many calculations simultaneously and hence is significantly faster than
the microprocessor.

 Gantry
The gantry includes the x-ray tube, the detector array, the high-voltage
generator, the patient support couch, and the mechanical support for
each. These subsystems receive electronic commands from the
operating console and transmit data to the computer for image
production and postprocessing tasks.
X-ray Tube. X-ray tubes used in multislice helical CT
imaging have special requirements. Multislice helical CT places
a considerable thermal demand on the x-ray tube. The x-ray
tube can be energized up to 60 s continuously.

Although some x-ray tubes operate at relatively low tube

current, for many, the instantaneous power capacity must be
high.
 High-speed rotors are used in most for the best heat
dissipation. Experience has shown that x-ray tube failure is a
principal cause of CT imaging system malfunction and is the
principal limitation on sequential imaging frequency.

 Focal-spot size is also important in most designs even though

the CT image is not based on principles of direct projection
imaging. CT imaging systems designed for high spatial
resolution imaging incorporate x-ray tubes with a small focal
spot. small focal spots produce less blurring and better
visibility of detail, and large focal spots have a greater heat-
dissipating capacity
Multislice helical CT x-ray tubes are very large. They have
an anode heat storage capacity of 8 MHU or more. They
have anode-cooling rates of approximately 1
MHU per minute because the anode disc has a larger
diameter, and it is thicker, resulting in much greater mass.

The limiting characteristics are focal-spot design and heat

dissipation. The small focal spot must be especially robust
in design. Manufacturers design focal-spot cooling
algorithms to predict the focal-spot thermal state and to
adjust the mA setting accordingly
 CTx-ray tubes are expected to last for at least
50,000 exposures.

 One company has produced a revolutionary x-ray tube in

which the whole insert rotates in a bath of oil during an
exposure. The beam of electrons is deflected onto the. The
result is that it can withstand up to 30 million heat units
and cools at a rate of 5 million heat units per minute.
Detector Array. Multislice helical CT imaging systems have
multiple detectors in an array that numbers up to tens of
thousands. Previously, gas filled detectors were used, but now,
all are scintillation, solid state detectors.

Sodium iodide (NaI) was the crystal used in the earliest

imaging systems. This was quickly replaced by bismuth
germinate (Bi4Ge3O12 or BGO) and cesium iodide (CsI).
Cadmium tungstate (CdWO4) and special ceramics are the
current crystals of choice. The concentration of scintillation
detectors is an important characteristic of a CT imaging system
that affects the spatial resolution of the system.
This multi detector array contains 64 rows
of
1824 individual detectors, each 0.6 mm
wide
(116,736 detectors).
 Scintillation
detectors have high x-ray detection efficiency.
Approximately 90% of the x-rays incident on the detector
are absorbed, and this contributes to the output signal. It
is now possible to pack the detectors so that the space
between them is nil.
 Consequently, overall detection efficiency approaches
90%. The efficiency of the x-ray detector array reduces
patient radiation doses, allows faster imaging time, and
improves
image quality by increasing signal-to-noise ratio. Detector
array design is especially critical for multislice helical CT.
Collimation. Collimation is required during multislice
helical CT imaging for precisely the same reasons as in
conventional radiography. Proper collimation reduces
patient radiation dose by restricting the volume of tissue
irradiated. Even more important is the fact
that it improves image contrast by limiting scatter
radiation.

In radiography, only one collimator is mounted on the x-

ray tube housing. In multislice helical CT imaging, two
collimators are used
Multislice helical computed tomography
imaging systems incorporate both a
prepatient collimator and a predetector
collimator.
 One collimator is mounted on the x-ray tube housing or adjacent to it. This collimator
limits the area of the patient that intercepts the useful beam and there by
determines the patient radiation dose. This prepatient collimator usually consists
of several sections, so a nearly parallel x-ray beam results.

 Prepatient collimation determines the radiation dose profile and patient

radiation dose.

The predetector collimator restricts the x-ray beam viewed by the detector array.
This collimator reduces when properly coupled with the prepatient collimator,
defines the slice thickness, also called the sensitivity profile. The predetector
collimator reduces scatter radiation that reaches the detector array, thereby
improving
image contrast.

The predetector collimator determines the sensitivity profile and slice

thickness.
 High-Voltage Generator. All multislice helical CT imaging systems operate on
high-frequency power. A high-frequency generator is small because the high
voltage step-up transformer is small, so it can be mounted on the rotating
gantry.

 The design limitation placed on the high-voltage generator are the same as
those for the x-ray tube. In a properly designed multislice helical CT imaging
system, the two should be matched to maximum capacity. Approximately 50
kW power is necessary.

 Patient Positioning and the Support Couch. In addition to supporting the

patient comfortably, the patient couch must be constructed of low-Z material,
such as carbon fiber, so it does not interfere with x-ray beam transmission and
patient imaging. It should be
smoothly and accurately motor driven to allow precise patient positioning that
is unaffected by the weight of the patient.
When patient couch positioning is not exact,
the same tissue can be imaged twice, thus
doubling the radiation dose, or it can be
missed altogether. The patient couch is
indexed automatically, so the operator does
not have to enter the examination room
between
imaging sequences. Such a feature reduces
the examination time required for each
patient.
 SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY
 Slip rings are electromechanical devices that conduct
electricity and electrical signals through rings and brushes
from a rotating surface onto a fixed surface.
 One surface is a smooth ring and the other a ring with brushes
that sweep the smooth ring.
 Helical CT is made possible by the use of slip-ring technology,
which allows the gantry to rotate continuously without
interruption.
 Early CT imaging was performed with a pause between gantry
rotations because high voltage and data cables passed from
the gantry. During the pause, the patient couch was moved
and the gantry was rewound to a starting position.
Slip rings and brushes electrically
connect the components on the
rotating gantry with the rest of the
multislice helical computed
tomography imaging system.
 In a slip-ring gantry system, power and electrical signals are
transmitted through stationary rings within the gantry, thus
eliminating the need for electrical cables and making
continuous rotation possible.
 Brushes that transmit power to the gantry components glide
in contact grooves on the stationary slip ring.
 Composite brushes made of conductive material (e.g., silver
graphite alloy) are used as a sliding contact. The
rings should last for the life of the imaging system. The
brushes have to be replaced every year or so during
preventive maintenance.
 Slip rings make multislice helical CT possible.