BIOMECHANICS OF

MUSCLE
DR. POOJA MOTAR, MPT,COMT , I.A.F.T
NEUROPHYSIOTHERAPIST ,LECTURER ,
KLE COLLEGE OF PHYSIOTHERAPY,
HUBBALLI .
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Skeletal muscles are organized multinucleated
myofibers, whose function is to generate
length and velocity dependent forces for
movement or stability.
• They are controlled by the nervous system,
thus movement or stability is a mechanical
event produced by skeletal muscles and
controlled by a complex system of voluntary,
spinal and sensory control[1].
•
• The skeletal muscles, like the joints, are designed to contribute
to the body’s needs for mobility and stability.
• Muscles serve a mobility function by producing or controlling
the movement of a bony lever around a joint axis;
• They serve a stability function by resisting extraneous
movement of joint surfaces and through approximation of joint
surfaces.
• The body is incapable of either supporting itself against gravity
or of producing motion without muscle function.
• Muscle cells are specialized for contraction.
• Muscles allow for motions such as walking, and they
also facilitate bodily processes such as respiration and
digestion.
• Most are attached by tendons to bones
• The body contains three types of muscle tissue:
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES
1. Skeletal muscle tissue forms skeletal muscles, which attach to bones or
skin and control locomotion and any movement that can be consciously
controlled. Because it can be controlled by thought, skeletal muscle is also
called voluntary muscle.

2. Smooth muscle tissue occurs in the walls of hollow organs such as the
intestines, stomach, and urinary bladder, and around passages such as the
respiratory tract and blood vessels. Smooth muscle has no striations, is not
under voluntary control, has only one nucleus per cell, is tapered at both
ends, and is called involuntary muscle.

3. Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart, and cardiac contractions
pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood pressure. Like skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, but unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle cannot be consciously controlled and is called involuntary muscle.
 FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERSTICS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLES

1. Excitability - the ability to receive and respond to stimuli.

2. Conductivity - The ability to receive a stimulus and transmit
a wave of excitation (electrochemical activity)
3. Contractility - the ability to shorten forcibly when
stimulated.
4. Extensibility -the ability to be stretched or extended.
5. Elasticity - The ability to bounce back to original length
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

Figure 10.2.1 – The Three Connective Tissue Layers: Bundles of muscle fibers,
called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by
the endomysium.
 STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Connective Tissue Covering

• Epimysium – (Surrounds entire muscle )Each muscle is wrapped in a sheath of

dense, irregular connective tissue called the epimysium, which allows a muscle to

contract and move powerfully while maintaining its structural integrity.

• Perimysium – Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers.

Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles, called fascicles,

surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue called the perimysium

• Endomysium –Surrounds individual muscle fibers.

Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue layer of

collagen and reticular fibers called the endomysium.

• Other connective tissues associated with muscles are in the form of
fasciae, aponeuroses, and sheaths. Fascia is a thin casing of
connective tissue that surrounds and holds every organ, blood
vessel, bone, nerve fiber and muscle in place.
• Fasciae can be divided into two zones: SUPERFICIAL AND DEEP.
1. The zone of superficial fasciae, composed of loose tissue, is located
directly under the dermis. This zone contributes to the mobility of the
skin, acts as an insulator, and may contain skin muscles such as the
platysma in the neck.
2. The zone of deep fasciae is composed of compacted and regularly
arranged collagenous
fibers. The deep fasciae attach to muscles and bones and may form tracts
or bands and retinacula.
For example, the deep femoral fasciae in the lower extremity forms a
tract known as the iliotibial tract or band. This tract transmits the
pull of two of the lower extremity muscles to the bones of the leg
(Fig. 3-10).
Retinacula are formed by localized transverse thickenings of
the fasciae, which form a loop that is attached at both ends to
bone (Fig. 3-11A). The tunnels formed by retinacula retain or
prevent tendons from bowing out of position during muscle
action (see Fig. 3- 11B).
Aponeuroses, which are sheets of dense white compacted
collagen fibers that attach directly or indirectly to muscles,
fasciae, bones, cartilage, and other muscles. Aponeuroses
distribute forces generated by the muscle to the structures to
which they are attached.
 ELEMENTS OF MUSCLE STRUCTURE
a) COMPOSITION OF A MUSCLE FIBRE
1. Contractile Proteins- A skeletal muscle is composed of many
thousands of muscle fibers . A single muscle contains many
fascicles, a group of muscle fibers (cells) surrounded by
connective tissue (Fig. 3-1A).
• Each fiber is a single muscle cell that is enclosed in a cell
membrane called the sarcolemma(see Fig. 3-1B).
• Like other cells in the body, the muscle fiber is composed of
cytoplasm, which in a muscle is called sarcoplasm.
• The sarcoplasm contains myofibrils (see Fig. 3-1C), which are the
contractile structures of a muscle fiber and nonmyofibrillar structures
such as ribosomes, glycogen, and mitochondria, which are required for
cell metabolism.

• The myofibril is composed of thick myo filaments composed of the

protein myosin and thin filaments composed of the protein actin (see
Fig. 3-1D). The interaction of these two myo filaments is essential for a
muscle contraction to occur.

• The thin myofilaments are formed by two chain like strings of actin
molecules wound around each other. Molecules of the globular protein
troponin are found in notches between the two actin strings and the
protein tropomyosin is attached to each troponin molecule (Fig. 3-2A).
• The troponin and tropomyosin molecules control the binding of actin
and myosin myofilaments.
• Each of the myosin molecules has globular enlargements called head
groups (see Fig. 3-2B).4 The head groups, which are able to swivel
and are the binding sites for attachment to the actin, play a critical
role in muscle contraction and relaxation.
• When the entire myofibril is viewed through a microscope, the
alternation of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilaments forms a
distinctive striped pattern, as seen in Figure 3-1D. Therefore, skeletal
muscle is often called striated muscle.
Figure 10.2.3 – The Sarcomere: The sarcomere, the region from one Z-line to the
next Z-line, is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber
 2. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
• The muscle fiber also consists of several structural proteins
• (intermediate filaments) provide a structural issue repair
and regeneration for the muscle fiber,
• whereas others (e.g., desmin) may be involved in the
transmission of force along the fiber and to adjoining
fibers.
• titin, has a particularly important role maintaining the
position of the thick filament during a muscle contraction
and in the development of passive tension.
• Titin is a large protein that is attached along the thick
filament
• To provide structure, flexibility, and stability to
these cell structures.
• Titin interacts with other muscle proteins,
including actin and myosin, to keep the
components of sarcomeres in place as muscles
contract and relax.
SACROMERE
Figure 10.2.2 – Muscle Fiber: A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma
membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of
muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many myofibrils, which contain
sarcomeres with light and dark regions that give the cell its striated appearance.
 B) THE CONTRACTILE UNIT
1.) Organization of the Contractile Unit
• The portion of the myofibril that is located between two Z disks
is called the sarcomere (see Fig. 3-3).
• Areas of the sarcomere called bands or zones help to identify
the arrangement of the thick and thin filaments.
• The portion of the sarcomere that extends over both the length of
the thick filaments and a small portion of the thin filaments is
called the anisotropic or A band.
• Areas that include only actin filaments are called
• isotropic or I bands.4
• The central portion of the thick filament (A band area) in which
there is no overlap with the thin filaments is called the H zone.
• The central portion of the H zone, which consists of the wide
middle portion of the thick filament, is called the M band.
2) CROSS-BRIDGE INTERACTION
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
• This theory was evolved independently and more or less
simultaneously by A.F Huxley and H.E. Huxley around 1950s.
• According to this theory, the force of contraction is developed by
the cross bridges in the overlap region.
• The active shortening is caused by the movement of the cross
bridges, which causes one filament to slide over the other.
• During muscle contraction, the actin filaments alone show
movement.
• But the myosin filaments remain static.
• The mechanical movement utilizes the energy derived from the
break down of ATP molecules.
• Interaction between the thick and thin filaments of the sarcomere
leading to muscle contraction is initiated by the arrival of a nerve
impulse at the motor end plate, which evokes an electric impulse, or
action potential, that travels along the muscle fiber.8
• The action potential initiates the release of calcium ions,9 and the
calcium ions cause troponin to reposition the tropomyosin molecules so
that receptor sites on the actin are free and the head groups of the
myosin can bind with actin. This bonding of filaments is called a cross-
bridge.

Tension is generated with the inclusion of the hydrolysis of adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) and the release of adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
from the myosin head1,10,11 (Fig. 3-5).
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
3) TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
• The sliding of the thin filaments toward and past the thick filaments, accompanied
by the formation and reformation of cross-bridges in each sarcomere, will result
in shortening of the muscle fiber and the generation of tension.
• ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS Isotonic contractions maintain constant tension
in the muscle as the muscle changes length. Isotonic muscle contractions can be
either concentric (muscle shortens) or eccentric (muscle lengthens).

a) The muscle fiber will shorten (contract) if a sufficient number of sarcomeres

actively shorten and if either one or both ends of the muscle fiber are free to
move. The active shortening of a muscle is called a concentric contraction, or
shortening contraction (Fig.3-6).

b) In contrast to a shortening contraction, in which the thin filaments are being

pulled toward the thick filaments, the muscle may undergo an eccentric
contraction or lengthening contraction.
Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
• In a lengthening contraction, the thin filaments are pulled away from the
thick filaments, and cross-bridges are broken and reformed as the muscle
lengthens.
• Tension is generated by the muscle as cross-bridges are re-formed.
• The muscle fibre will not change length if the force created by the cross-
bridge cycling is matched by the external force. The contraction of a
muscle fibrem without changing length is called an isometric contraction.
• isometric contractions generate force without changing the length of the
muscle . This is typical of muscles found in the hands and forearm: the
muscles do not change length, and joints are not moved, so force for grip is
sufficient.
• An example is when the muscles of the ha nd and forearm grip an object;
the joints of the hand do not move, but muscles generate sufficient force to
prevent the object from being dropped.
 Motor Unit
• Functional unit of skeletal muscle is the motor unit which
includes a single motor neuron & muscle fibers innervated by it.
• Consists of alpha motor neuron & all of the muscle fibers it
innervates.
• Cell body alpha neuron is located anterior horn of spinal cord.
• Nerve cell axon extends from cell body to the muscle where it
divides into few or thousands smaller branches.
• Each smaller branch terminates in motor end plate that lies in
approximation to sacrolemma of a single muscle fiber.
 TYPES OF MOTOR UNITS
Motor units are classified into following types.
1. Slow motor units (TYPE-1)
2. Fast fatigue resistant motor units (TYPE-2A)
3. Fast fatigable motor units (TYPE-2B)
Units that have small cell bodies have small-diameter axons (see
Fig. 3-7). Nerve impulses take longer to travel through small-
diameter axons than they do through large-diameter axons.
Therefore, in the small-diameter units, a stimulus will take
longer to reach the muscle fibers than it will in a unit with a
large-diameter axon.
 RECRUITMENT OF MOTOR UNITS
• when an isometric muscle action is desired, the motor units
with the small cell bodies and few motor fibers are recruited
first by the nervous system and then, as force is increased,
larger motor units are recruited. This recruitment strategy is
referred to as the size principle of motor unit recruitment.
• If a few small motor units are capable of accomplishing the
task, the recruitment of large motor units is unnecessary.
• If the task demands are such that the small motor units are
unable to complete the task, larger motor units can be
recruited.
 Muscle Structure
• Three principal types of muscle fibers are found invarying
proportions in human skeletal muscles.
• primary muscle fiber types will be referred to as type I (slow),
type IIA (intermediate), and type IIB (fast) (Table 3-1).19
 TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRES

• TYPE 1-Slow oxidative (SO) fibers contract relatively slowly

and use aerobic respiration oxygen to produce ATP.
• TYPE 2a-Fast oxidative (FO) fibers have fast contractions
and primarily use aerobic respiration, but because they may
switch to anaerobic respiration (glycolysis), can fatigue more
quickly than SO fibers.
• TYPE2b- fast glycolytic (FG) fibers have fast contractions
and primarily use anaerobic glycolysis.
 • TYPE 1-THE OXIDATIVE FIBERS
 It contain many more mitochondria than the glycolytic fibers, because aerobic
metabolism, which uses oxygen (O2) in the metabolic pathway, occurs in the
mitochondria.
 The SO fibers possess a large number of mitochondria and are capable of
contracting for longer periods because of the large amount of ATP they can produce,
but they have a relatively small diameter and do not produce a large amount of
tension.
 All of these features allow SO fibers to produce large quantities of ATP, which can
sustain muscle activity without fatiguing for long periods of time.
 SO fibers can function for long periods without fatiguing makes them useful in
maintaining posture, producing isometric contractions, stabilizing bones and joints,
and making small movements that happen often but do not require large amounts of
energy.
 They do not produce high tension, and thus they are not used for powerful, fast
movements that require high amounts of energy and rapid cross-bridge cycling.
 • TYPE 2A- FAST OXYDATIVE FIBRES
 FO fibers are sometimes called intermediate fibers because they possess
characteristics that are intermediate between fast fibers and slow fibers.
They produce ATP relatively quickly, more quickly than SO fibers, and
thus can produce relatively high amounts of tension.
 They are oxidative because they produce ATP aerobically, possess high
amounts of mitochondria, and do not fatigue quickly.
 However, FO fibers do not possess significant myoglobin, giving them a
lighter color than the red SO fibers. FO fibers are used primarily for
movements, such as walking, that require more energy than postural
control but less energy than an explosive movement, such as sprinting.
 FO fibers are useful for this type of movement because they produce more
tension than SO fibers but they are more fatigue-resistant than FG fibers.
 • TYPE 2B FAST GLYCOLYTIC FIBRES
 FG fibers primarily use anaerobic glycolysis as their ATP
source.
 They have a large diameter and possess high amounts of
glycogen, which is used in glycolysis to generate ATP
quickly to produce high levels of tension.
 Because they do not primarily use aerobic metabolism, they
do not possess substantial numbers of mitochondria or
significant amounts of myoglobin and therefore have a
white color.
 FG fibers are used to produce rapid, forceful contractions to
make quick, powerful movements.
 These fibers fatigue quickly, permitting them to only be
used for short periods.
• Muscles that have a relatively high proportion of type I fibers in relation to
type II fibers, such as the soleus muscle, are able to carry on sustained
activity because the type I fibers do not fatigue rapidly. These muscles are
often called stability or postural muscles.
• Muscles that have a higher proportion of the type II fibers, such as the
hamstring muscles, are sometimes designated as mobility or nonpostural
muscles.
• These muscles are involved in producing a large ROM of the bony
omponents.21,22 The type II fibers respond more rapidly to a stimulus but
also fatigue more rapidly than do type I fibers.
• After intermittent bouts of high-intensity exercise, muscles with a high
proportion of type II fibers, which involve a large initial response, show
greater fatigue and recover more slowly than do muscles with a high
 MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE: SIZE,
ARRANGEMENT, AND LENGTH
• The description of skeletal muscle architecture

includes the arrangement of the fibers in relation to the axis of force

(amount of Pennation), muscle fiber length, muscle mass, and the
physiologic cross-sectional area (PCSA).
• The two most important architectural characteristics that affect muscle
function are the muscle fiber length and the PCSA.
• The fiber length (or the number of sarcomeres along the fiber) directly
determines the amount of shortening or lengthening of the fiber.
• Longer muscles with more sarcomeres in series (e.g. fusiform) have
greater potential for fast contractions, but produce less force;
• whereas muscles with more sarcomeres in parallel (e.g. pennate
muscles) have the potential to produce larger force, but at slower
velocities.
 BASED ON PHYSIOLOGIC CROSS-
SECTIONAL AREA (PCSA). /
• The PCSA is a measure of the cross-sectional area of
the muscle perpendicular to the orientation of the
muscle fibers.
• The amount of force that a muscle produces is directly
proportional to the number of sarcomeres aligned side
by side (or in parallel).
• The quadriceps muscles have a larger PSCA,and the
hamstring muscles have longer fibers.
• This architectural arrangement suggests that the
quadriceps muscles are designed for force production
and the hamstring muscles are designed for
movements requiring a larger ROM.
• Arrangement of fascicles (muscle fiber groups) varies among muscles. The fasciculi may be parallel to the

long axis of the muscle (Fig. 3-8A), may spiral around the long axis (see Fig. 3-8B), or may be at an angle to

the long axis (see Fig. 3-8C).

• Muscles that have a parallel fiber arrangement (parallel to the long axisand to each other) are designated as

strap or fusiform muscles. In general, muscles with a parallel fibre arrangement will produce a greater

ROM of a bony lever with increase velocity. Fibers oriented parallel to the tendon. Increased range of

motion. Increased velocity.

• Muscles that have a fiber arrangement oblique to the muscle’s long axis are called pennate muscles because

the fiber arrangement resembles that found in a feather.

• The fibers that make up the fascicles in pennate muscles are usually shorter and more numerous than the

fibers in many of the fusiform muscles.

• In unipennate muscles, such as the flexor pollicis longus/ semimembranous, the obliquely set fascicles fan

out on only one side of a central muscle tendon.

• In a bipennate muscle, such as the gastrocnemius/ rectus femoris, the fascicles are obliquely set on both

sides of a central tendon.

• In a multipennate muscle, such as the soleus or subscapularis/ tibialis anterior, the oblique fascicles

converge on several tendons.

• Larger PCSA.
Increased force production.
Shorter range of motion
 PARALLEL AND SERIES ELASTIC COMPONENT OF MUSCLE

• The parallel elastic component is suggested to consist of the membranes

surrounding the contractile components which includes the sarcolemma,

sarcoplasmic retinaculum, the perimysium and the epimysium.

• When a muscle lengthens or shortens, these tissues also lengthen or shorten,

because they function in parallel to the muscle contractile unit.

• the series elastic components reside in the tendons and aponeuroses to

function in series with the contractile elements. This means that the tendon

will be under tension when the muscle actively produces tension. When the

contractile elements in a muscle actively shorten, they exert a pull on the tendon.

• Both leads to passive elastic and tension component

 MUSCLE FUNCTION
1. Muscle tension

• Most important function in a muscle is its ability to develop tension& to exert force on

bony lever.

• Tension can be either active, passive& total tension in a muscle includes both active &

passive.

Passive tension

• It is developed in elastic component as a result of lengthening of muscle

Active tension

• It refers to tension developed by contractile elements in muscle

• By cross bridge formation

• It depends on neural factors(frequency, number, size of motor units firing), mechanical

properties(isometric length-tension & force-velocity relationship)

 FACTORS
• Tension may be increased by increasing the frequency of
firing of a motor unit or by increasing the number of motor
units that are firing.
• Tension may be increased by recruiting motor units with a
larger number of fibers.
• The greater the number of cross-bridges that are formed,
the greater the tension. .
• Muscles that have large physiologic cross-sections are
capable of producing more tension than are muscles that have
small cross-sections.
• Tension increases as the velocity of active shortening
decreases and as the velocity of active lengthening increases.
 ISOMETRIC LENGTH TENSION RELATIONSHIP

• One of the most fundamental concepts in muscle physiology is the direct

relationship between isometric tension development in a muscle fiber and the length
of the sarcomeres in a muscle fiber.32
• There is an optimal sarcomere length at which a muscle fiber is capable of
developing maximal isometric tension (see Fig. 3-13). because the thick and thin
filaments are positioned so that the maximum number of cross-bridges within the
sarcomere can be formed.
• If the muscle fiber is lengthened or shortened beyond optimal length, the amount
of active tension that the muscle fiber is able to generate will be decreased
1. Muscle fiber lengthened - Fewer Cross- (less tension)
bridge formation
2. Muscle fiber shortened - Distance between (less tension )
Z disc
3. optimal sarcomere length - more cross bridge formation (maximal isometric
tension )
 Active and passive insufficiency

• Insufficiency is the term used for describing the

inability of a muscle to generate adequate force
bring out a desired action / movement.
• muscle insufficiency is seen when the length
tension relation is altered.
• Muscle lengthened = Passive insufficiency
• Muscle shortened = Active insufficiency
• Active and Passive insufficiency is seen only in two
joint or multi-joint muscles.
• Active insufficiency occurs when a multi-joint muscle shortens over BOTH joints
simultaneously, and hence, creates so much slack, that muscle tension is almost
completely lost. It cannot maintain or generate active tension.

• Passive insufficiency occurs when the multi-joint muscle is lengthened to its fullest
extent at both joints, but also preventing the full ROM of each joint it crosses. The
muscle cannot elongate further.
1. Wrist and finger flexors
• Active Insufficiency --> when the wrist is flexed the fingers can't be flexed all the
way
• Passive Insufficiency --> when the wrist is hyperextended the fingers can't be
extended all the way
2. hamstrings
• the hamstrings cross both the hip joint and knee joint
• Active Insufficiency --> when the knee is flexed (shortening the hamstrings), the
hip can't be extended as far
• Passive Insufficiency --> when the knee is extended (lengthening the hamstrings),
the hip can't be flexed as far
 Force-velocity relationship
• It describes the relationship between velocity of muscle
contraction & force produced in the muscle.
• Velocity of contraction means the rate at which myofilaments are
able to slide past one another& form, reform cross bridges.
• Another factor that affects the development
of tension within a muscle is the speed of
shortening of the myofilaments.
• The speed of shortening is the rate at which
the myofilaments are able to slide past one
another and form and re-form cross-bridges.
• Concentric contraction: (as shortening of
muscle) speed decrease and tension increase
• Isometric : speed zero more amount of
tension than concentric.
• Eccentric contraction : more speed of
lengthening ,more tension in the muscle .
• At maximal velocity of shortening – no force
produced
• At velocity of concentric contraction decreases-
force production increases
• At zero velocity-isometric contraction
• During eccentric muscle contraction- force
suddenly increase and becomes plateau
 TYPES OF MUSCLE ACTION
• Muscle actions (or contractions) are described as isometric contraction
(constant length) or dynamic contractions consisting of concentric
contraction (shortening of the muscle under load) and eccentric contraction
(lengthening of the muscle under load).
• During an isometric contraction, no work is being done because the joint is not
moving.

• Positive work is being done by the muscle because the joint moves through a
ROM. (concentric contraction )

• The work that is being done during an eccentric contraction is called negative
work because the work is done on the muscle rather than by the muscle.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES

1.Based on Role of the Muscle in Movement

• The term prime mover (agonist) is used to designate a muscle
whose role is to produce a desired motion at a joint.
• If flexion is the desired action, the flexor muscles are the prime
movers and the muscles (extensors) that are directly opposite to the
desired motion are called the antagonists.
• Example : when an agonist (for example, the biceps brachii) is called
on to perform a desired motion (elbow flexion), the antagonist
muscle (the triceps brachii) is inhibited.
• the agonist and the potential antagonist contract simultaneously, then co-
contraction occurs (Fig. 3-21). Co-contraction of muscles around a joint can
help to provide stability for the joint and represents a form of synergy that may
be necessary in certain situations.
• Muscles that help the agonist to perform a desired action are called synergists.

• Synergists may assist the agonist directly by helping to perform the desired
action, such as in the wrist flexion example, or the synergists may assist the
agonist indirectly either by stabilizing a part or by preventing an undesired
action.
 FACTORS AFFECTING MUSCLE FUNCTION
1. TYPES OF JOINTS AND LOCATION OF MUSCLE ATTACHMENT

• The type of joint affects the function of a muscle in that the structure of the joint determines
the type of motion that will occur (flexion and extension) and the ROM.
• The muscle’s location or line of action relative to the joint determines which motion the
muscle will perform. In general, muscles that cross the anterior aspect of the joints of the
upper extremities, trunk, and hip are flexors, whereas the muscles located on the posterior
aspect of these joints are extensors.
• Muscles located laterally and medially serve as abductors and adductors, respectively, and
may also serve as rotators.
• Muscles whose distal attachments are close to a joint axis are usually able to produce a wide
ROM of the bony lever to which they are attached. Muscles whose distal attachments are at a
distance from the joint axis, such as the brachioradialis, are designed to provide stability for
the joint. Disturbances of the normal ratio of agonist-antagonist pairs may create a muscle
imbalance at the joint and may place the joint at risk for injury.
 NUMBER OF JOINTS

• Many functional movements require the coordinated movement of several

joints controlled by a combination of muscles that cross one or many of the
joints.
• Single-joint muscles tend to be recruited to produce force and work,
primarily in concentric and isometric contractions. This recruitment
strategy occurs primarily when a simple movement is performed at one
joint.
• Multijoint muscles tend to be recruited during more complex motions
requiring movement around multiple axes.
• For example, the movement of elbow flexion with concurrent supination
uses the biceps brachii (a multijoint muscle) with added contribution of the
brachialis (a single-joint muscle).
 PASSIVE INSUFFICIENCY

• When a multijoint muscle on one side of a joint

becomes excessively shortened, a multijoint
muscle on the opposite side of the joint often
becomes excessively lengthened.
 SENSORY RECEPTORS

• Two important sensory receptors, A) the Golgi tendon organ

and B) the muscle spindle, affect muscle function.

• A) The Golgi tendon organs, which are located in the

tendon at the myotendinous junction, are sensitive to tension

and may be activated either by an active muscle contraction

or by an excessive passive stretch of the muscle. When the

Golgi tendon organs are excited, they send a message to the

nervous system to inhibit the muscle in whose tendon the

receptor lies.
B) The muscle spindles, which consist of 2 to 10 specialized muscle fibers
(intrafusal fibers) enclosed in a connective tissue sheath, are interspersed
throughout the muscle.
• These spindle fibers are sensitive to the length and the velocity of lengthening of
the muscle fibers (extrafusal fibers present outside the intrafusal fibre ).
• When the muscle fiber shortens, the spindles stop sending messages because they
are no longer stretched.
• The muscle spindle is responsible for sending the message to the muscle in which
it lies to contract when the tendon of a muscle is tapped with a hammer (Fig. 3-
27). The quick stretch of the muscle caused by tapping the tendon activates the
muscle spindles, and the muscle responds to the unexpected spindle message by a
brief contraction. This response is called by various names: for example, deep
tendon reflex (DTR), muscle spindle reflex (MSR), or, simply, stretch reflex.
• Both the Golgi tendon organs and the muscle spindles provide
constant feedback to the central nervous system during movement
so that appropriate adjustments can be made, and they help protect
the muscle from injury by monitoring changes in muscle length.
• The presence of the stretch reflex is beneficial for preventing
muscle injury.
 EFFECTS OF IMMOBILIZATION
• Immobilization Effects both muscle structure &
function.
In Shortened position In Lengthened position
 Decrease in no of sarcomeres
 Exhibit fewer structural &
 Increase in amount of
functional changes
perimysium
 Increase in no of sarcomeres
 Thickening of endomysium
 Muscle Hypertrophy
 Increase in amount of (Hypertrophy is an increase in the
collagen size of cells (or tissues) in response
 Increase in ratio of to various stimuli.) followed by
connective tissue to muscle atrophy (Muscle atrophy is
the wasting (thinning) or loss of
fiber tissue muscle tissue)
 Loss of weight & muscle  Increase in maximum
atrophy tension-generating capacity
 Effects of Injury

1. Overuse
2. Muscle strain
3. Eccentric exercise induced muscle injury
 OVERUSE

• Overuse may cause injury to tendons, ligaments, bursae, nerves,

cartilage, and muscle.
• The common etiology of these injuries is repetitive trauma that does
not allow time for complete repair of the tissue. The additive
effects of repetitive forces lead to microtrauma, which in turn
triggers the inflammatory process and results in swelling.
• The tissue most commonly affected by overuse injuries is the
musculotendinous unit.
• Tendons can fatigue with repetitive submaximal loading.
• Bursae may become inflamed with resultant effusion and thickening
of the bursal wall as a result of repetitive trauma.
• Nerves can be subjected to compression injuries by muscle
hypertrophy(Hypertrophy is an increase and growth
of muscle cells.) , decreased flexibility, and altered joint
mechanics.74
 MUSCLE STRAIN

• Muscle strain injuries can occur from a single high force contraction of the
muscle while the muscle is lengthened by external forces.
• A muscle strain, or pulled muscle, occurs when your muscle is
overstretched or torn
• Subsequently, there is localized bleeding and a significant acute
inflammatory response, resulting in swelling, redness, and pain.
 ECCENTRIC EXERCISE-INDUCED MUSCLE INJURY
• Injuries to muscles may occur as a result of even a single bout of eccentric
exercise. After 30 to 40 minutes of eccentric exercise (walking downhill) or
as few as 15 to 20 repetitions of high-load eccentric contractions.
• Also, a loss of coordination, delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS),
swelling, and a dramatic increase in muscle stiffness have been reported. The
DOMS reaches a peak 2 to 4 days after exercise.
• DOMS occurs in muscles performing eccentric exercise but not in muscles
performing concentric exercise.
• It is a sore, aching, painful feeling in the muscles after eccentric
contraction
• Example. Walking downhill, strength training
 EFFECTS OF AGING

1. Fiber number & fiber type changes

2. Connective tissue changes

 Fiber number & fiber type changes
• As a person ages, skeletal muscle strength
decreases as a result of changes in fiber type
and motor unit distribution.
• there is a loss of muscle fibers;
• there is a gradual decrease in the number and
size of type II fibers, and then the muscle is
left with a relative increase in type I fibers.82
• There is also a decrease in the number of
motor units, remaining motor units increased
in the number of fibers per motor unit.82,83
 Connective Tissue Changes
• Aging will also increase the amount of connective tissue
within the endomysium and perimysium of the skeletal
muscle.
• the increased connective tissue results in decreased ROM
and increased muscle stiffness.
• All of these changes in the muscle result in decreased
muscle strength and, more important, a loss in muscle
power.
• This loss of muscle power, or the ability to contract the
muscle with high force and high
• velocity, may be a potential cause of falls in the elderly.