11P09
Mechanical Properties of Solids
11P09 Mechanical Properties of Solids
Learning
Objectives
Stress and Strain
Hooke’s Law
Stress - Strain Curve
Elastic Moduli
Poisson’s Ratio
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire
11P09.1
Stress and Strain
11P09.1 Stress and Strain
Learning
Objectives
Elastic Behaviour of Solids
Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law
Stress - Strain Curve
11P09.1
CV 1
Elastic Behaviour of Solids
𝒓 𝒆𝒒
These atoms or molecules are bonded together by
interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay in a stable
equilibrium position.
Net force between atoms
𝑭
𝒓
𝑭 𝑭
𝒓 >𝒓 𝒆𝒒
Atoms
Interatomic forces
Elastic
Materials
Materials that have a tendency to return back to
their original configuration upon the removal of
deforming forces. Example – rubber band.
This property is called
elasticity.
Plastic
Materials
Material that do not have a tendency to return
back to their original configuration upon the
removal of deforming forces. These material get
permanently deformed. Example – clay.
This property is called
plasticity.
11P09.1
CV 2
Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law
Stress
The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.
Magnitude of the stress
Where area of wire of spring
SI unit :
Dimension :
⃗
𝑭
⃗
𝑭
Stress
Longitudina Shearing Hydraulic
l stress stress stress
Longitudinal stress
When the forces are applied along the length of the
body or normal to its cross sectional area.
Tensile Compressive
stress stress
𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭
Shearing stress
When the forces are applied parallel to the cross
sectional area of the body. It is also known tangential
stress.
Hydraulic stress
If a body is subjected to a uniform pressure from all
the sides, then the stress is referred to as hydraulic
stress.
Hydraulic stress
11P09.1
PSV 1
Q. A load of is suspended from a ceiling through a steel
wire of radius . Find the tensile stress developed in the
wire when equilibrium is achieved. Take .
Sol. The tension in the wire is
The area of cross-section is
Thus, the tensile stress developed
11P09.1
PSV 2
Q. Find the longitudinal stress in both the wires P and Q.
Both wires are made of same metal and area of cross-
section of each wire is . Take
𝟐𝒌𝒈
Q
𝟏 𝒌𝒈
Sol. and
From FBD of block , 𝑻𝑸 𝑻𝑷
Stress in wire Q 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 𝟐𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝒈
From FBD of block, 𝟐𝒈+𝑻 𝑸
Stress in wire P
Strain
The ratio of change in dimension to the
original dimension is called strain.
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
Strain
Longitudina Shearing Volume or
l strain strain Bulk
strain
Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal strain is the ratio of the change in length
to the original.
𝑭 𝑭
𝑳
𝑳 𝚫𝑳
Shearing strain
Shearing strain is equal to the angle of shear
For very small angles,
𝑳 𝜽
Volume or Bulk
strain
Bulk strain is the ratio of the change in volume to the
original.
Hooke’s Law
For small deformations the stress and strain are
proportional to each other. This is known as Hooke’s law.
Thus,
where is the proportionality constant and is known as
modulus of elasticity.
In case of longitudinal stress, Young’s Modulus
11P09.1
PSV 3
Q. A cube of aluminum of sides is subjected to a shearing
force of . The top face of the cube is displaced by with
respect to the bottom face. The shearing strain would
be
Sol. Shearing strain, 𝑥
Area 𝐹
𝜽
𝐿
𝐹
11P09.1
PSV 4
Q. A uniform cube is subjected to volume compression. If
each side is decreased by , then bulk strain is,
Sol. If side of the cube is then
change in volume
11P09.1
CV 3
Stress - Strain Curve
𝑫
𝑬
𝑩 𝑪
𝑨
Spring force
Stres
Applied
𝒙 force
s
𝒐 Strai
n
The stress-strain curves vary from material to
material.
These curves help us to understand how a given
material deforms with increasing loads.
In the region from O to
A,
The curve is linear.
Hooke’s law is obeyed. 𝑫
The body regains its 𝑬
𝑩 𝑪
original dimensions when 𝑨
the applied force is
Stres
removed.
s
In this region, the solid
behaves as an elastic body. 𝒐 Strai
Slope of line OA n
In the region from A to
B,
Stress and strain are not
proportional.
𝑫
Nevertheless, the body 𝑬
𝑪
still returns to its original 𝝈𝒚 𝑩
dimension when the 𝑨 yield point
applied force is removed.
The point B in the curve is
Stres
known as yield point (also
s
known as elastic limit)
and the corresponding
stress is known as yield
𝒐 Strai
strength of the material. n
In the region from B to
D,When the load is removed,
the body does not regain
𝝈𝒖 𝑫
its original dimension. 𝑬
𝑪
In this case, when . The 𝝈𝒚 𝑩
material is said to have a 𝑨 yield point
permanent set.
Stres
The deformation is said to
be plastic deformation.
s
The point D on the graph is Permanent
tensile o¿ 𝟏 %
set
{
the ultimate Strai
strength of the material. n
In the region from D to E,
Beyond point D, additional
strain is produced even by
𝝈 𝑫
a reduced applied force and 𝒖 𝑬
fracture occurs at point E. 𝑪
𝝈𝒚 𝑩 Fracture
point
If the ultimate strength and 𝑨 yield point
fracture points D and E are
close, the material is said
Stres
to be brittle.
s
If they are far apart, the
Permanent
material is said to be o set
{
ductile. ¿𝟏% Strai
n
Elastomers :
Substances which can be stretched to cause large strains
are called elastomers. Example, tissue of aorta, rubber
etc.
Tissue of
aorta
Stress - Strain curve for elastomers
:
)
Elastic region is very large,
−𝟐
but material does not obey
1.0
( 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝐍𝐦
Hooke’s law over most of
the region.
0 .5
There is no well defined
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
plastic region.
0 .5 1.0
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
11P09.1
PSV 5
Q. What is the value of Young’s modulus for the wire
having the stress-strain curve shown in the figure.
10 𝑨
8
6
4
Stress
2
𝑶2 4 6 8 Strain
Sol. Slope of the stress-strain curve
11P09.1
PSV 6
Q. Stress-strain curve for two wires of material 𝐴 and 𝐵
are as shown in figure. Wire
a) Which material is more ductile ?
b) Which material has greater
Stres
Wire
value of Young modulus ?
s
Strai
Sol. a) Ultimate strength and fracture points are far
n apart
material is ductile.
Wire A is more ductile.
b) Young’s modulus
Slope for wire A > slope for wire B
Summary
• Elastic materials have a tendency to return back to their original
configuration upon the removal of deforming forces.
• Plastic materials do not have a tendency to return back to their
original configuration upon the removal of deforming forces.
• The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.
• Magnitude of the stress
• The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is
called strain.
• , ,
• For small deformations the stress and strain are proportional to
each other. This is known as Hooke’s law.
• Hooke’s law is valid only in linear part of stress-strain curve.
Stress and Strain
Reference Questions
NCERT: 9.2, 9.3, 9.9
Workbook: 1, 3, 4, 8, 17, 19
11P09.2
Elastic Moduli
11P09.2 Elastic Moduli
Learning
Objectives
Young’s modulus
Shear Modulus and Bulk Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire
Applications of Elastics Behaviour of Materials
11P09.2
CV 1
Young’s Modulus
The ratio of stress to strain is called modulus of
elasticity.
Modulus of
elasticity
Young’s Shear Bulk
modulus modulus modulus
Young’s Modulus
The ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain
is defined as Young’s modulus and it is denoted by the
symbol
𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝝈
𝒀= =
𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝜺
𝑭/𝑨 𝒍
⇒𝒀 = 𝑨
𝚫 𝒍/ 𝒍
SI unit : 𝑭 𝚫𝒍
Iron Wood Aluminium
Glass
Copper Polystyrene
Substance Young’s modulus Yield strength
Steel
Iron(wrought)
Copper
Aluminium
Glass
Concrete
Wood
Bone
Polystyrene
Why steel is preferred in
heavy duty machines and in
structural design ?
Young’s Yield strength
Substance
modulus
Steel
Iron(wrought)
Copper
Aluminium
Glass
Concrete
Wood
Bone
Polystyrene
Young’s modulus for steel is very large. Therefore, this
material requires a large force to produce small change in
length. And for this reason steel is preferred in heavy duty
machines and in structural design.
Stee Copper
l 𝑭𝒄
𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝒄
𝒍 𝒔 =𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝒍 𝒄 =𝟓 𝒄𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝑨 𝒔 =𝟎 .𝟏 𝒄 𝒎 𝑨 𝒄=𝟎 .𝟏 𝒄 𝒎
𝚫 𝒍 𝒔 =𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝚫 𝒍 𝒄 =𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟗 −𝟐 𝟗 −𝟐
𝒀 𝒔 =𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝟏 𝟎 𝑵 𝒎 𝒀 𝒄=𝟏𝟏𝟎×𝟏 𝟎 𝑵 𝒎
Steel is more elastic than copper.
Young’s Yield strength
Substance
modulus
Steel
Iron(wrought)
Copper
Aluminium
Glass
Concrete
Wood
Bone
Polystyrene
11P09.2
PSV 1
Q. A copper wire of length and a steel wire of length , both
of diameter , are connected end to end. When stretched
by a load, the net elongation is found to be . Obtain the
load applied. Given, and
Sol.
The copper and steel wires are under a same tensile stress().
From equation and
Determination of Young’s Modulus of
the Material of a Wire
and fixed rigid support
The difference between
two vernier readings
Reference 𝑨 𝑩
Experimental
Wire Wire
gives
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕
the elongation produced
in the wire.
Let be the mass that
produced an
elongation in the
wire. (Meter (Vernier
Applied𝑴𝒈
force Scale) Scale)
𝝈 𝝅 𝒓 𝟐 𝑴𝒈𝑳
𝒀= ¿ ¿
𝜺 𝜟 𝑳 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝜟 𝑳
𝑳
Why we use two wires
in
experiment ?
The reference wire is used to compensate for any change in
length that may occur due to change in room temperature,
since any change in length of the reference wire due to
temperature change will be accompanied by an equal
change in experimental wire.
11P09.2
CV 2
Shear Modulus and Bulk Modulus
Shear Modulus : It is the ratio of shearing stress to
the corresponding shearing strain.
It is represented by .
It is also called the modulus of
rigidity.
SI unit : 𝒙
𝑳 𝜽
Substance
Steel
Iron
Copper
Aluminium
Glass
Wood
It can be seen that shear modulus (or modulus of
rigidity) is generally less than Young’s modulus.
11P09.2
PSV 2
Q. A cube of side is fixed at one end. A tangential force of
is applied at the other end. Calculate the twist produced
in the cube, if the modulus of rigidity is
Sol. Given, ,
𝑥
𝑨 𝐹
𝟒 𝒄𝒎
11P09.2
PSV 3
Q. A square lead slab of side and thickness is subjected to
a shearing force (on its narrow face) of . The lower edge
is riveted to the floor. How much will the upper edge be
displaced ? Given,
Sol.The area of the face parallel to which this force is
applied is 𝒙
𝑭
𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎
1
𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎
Bulk Modulus : The ratio of hydraulic stress to the
corresponding hydraulic strain is called bulk
modulus. It is denoted by symbol
𝑷
𝑷
𝑷
𝑷
SI unit : 𝑽
𝑽
𝑷 𝑷
𝚫𝑽
𝑷 𝑷
𝑷
The negative sign indicates the fact that with an increase
in pressure, a decrease in volume occurs.
Thus the value of bulk modulus is always positive.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility
and is denoted by .
𝒌=
𝟏
𝑩
=− ( )( )
𝟏
𝚫𝑷
×
𝚫𝑽
𝑽
It is also defined as the fractional change in volume per unit
increase in pressure
Substance
Nickel
Steel
𝑩 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔 > 𝑩𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅𝒔 >𝑩𝒈𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 Copper
Iron
𝒂𝒏𝒅 Aluminium
𝒌 𝒈𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 >𝒌 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅𝒔 > 𝒌𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔 Brass
Mercury
Glycerine
Water
Ethanol
Air(at STP)
Gases are about a million times more compressible than
solids.
Solids Gases
11P09.2
PSV 4
Q. The Marina trench is located in the Pacific Ocean and at
one place it is nearly beneath the surface of water. The
water pressure at the surface of the trench is about . A
steel ball of initial volume is dropped into the ocean and
falls to the bottom of the trench. What is the change in
the volume of the ball when it reaches to the bottom ?
Given, bulk modulus of water is and density of water is
.
𝟖
Sol 𝑷 𝟎=𝟏 . 𝟏× 𝟏 𝟎 𝑷𝒂
Given,
. 𝑽
and
𝑽′ 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎
11P09.2
CV 3
Poisson’s Ratio and Elastic Potential
Energy in a Stretched Wire
Poisson’s Ratio :
The strain perpendicular to the
applied force is called lateral strain.
The ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain in a stretched 𝒍
wire is called Poisson’s ratio.
𝑨
original diameter of the wire
contraction of the diameter under stress
𝑨′ 𝑭 𝚫𝒍
𝜟𝒅
𝒅
Poisson’s ratio ¿
𝜟𝒍
𝒍
𝜟𝒅
𝒅
Poisson’s ratio ¿
𝜟𝒍
𝒍
Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of two strains.
It is a pure number and has no dimensions or units.
Its value depends only on the nature of material.
For steels the value is between and and for aluminium
alloys it is about
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire
When a wire is put under a tensile stress, work is done
against the inter-atomic forces. This work is stored in the
wire in the form of elastic potential energy.
𝑭 =𝒀𝑨
𝒍
𝑳 ( )( )
=
𝒀𝑨
𝑳
𝒍 Spring force
𝑳
work done 𝑨
𝑭𝒍
𝒅𝒍
[ ]
𝟐 𝒍
𝒀𝑨 𝒍
⇒𝑾 =
𝑳 𝟐 𝟎
()
𝟐
𝒀𝑨 𝒍
𝟐
𝟏 𝒍
⇒𝑾 = ⇒𝑾 = 𝒀 𝑨𝑳
𝑳 𝟐 𝟐 𝑳
This work is stored in the wire in the form of elastic
potential energy Therefore the elastic potential energy per
unit volume of the wire is
𝟏
𝒖= 𝝈𝜺
𝟐
11P09.2
PSV 5
Q. Calculate the work done in stretching a uniform metal
wire of area of cross-section and length byThe Young’s
modulus for the wire is .
Sol
.
11P09.2
CV 4
Applications of Elastic Behaviour of
Materials
Thick
metal
rope
Suppose we want to make a crane, which has a lifting
capacity of How thick should the steel rope be?
For mild steel
Generally a large margin of safety (of about a factor of ten
in the load) is provided. Thus a thicker rope of radius about
is recommended.
A single wire of this radius would practically be a rigid rod.
So the ropes are always made of a number of thin wires
braided together.
A beam supported at the ends and loaded at the centre,
Beam sags by an amount
𝒍
Where length of the rod 𝜹 𝒅
breadth of the rod
𝑾
depth of the rod 𝑾
To reduce the bending for a given load, we should use a
material with a large Young’s modulus.
Buckling
:It is defined as a mode of failure under
compression of a structural component
that is thin with respect to its length.
To avoid this, we use this type cross-
sectional shapes,
Why the maximum height of
a mountain on earth is
A mountain base is not under uniform compression and this
provides some shearing stress to the rocks under which
they can flow.
Stress due to weight of
the mountain
Where density of the
material of the mountain.
Summary
Types of Strain Change Change Elastic Name of State
stress in shape in Modulus Modulus of
volume Matter
Tensile or Yes No Young’s Solid
Compressiv Modulus
e
Yes No Shear Solid
Shearing
Modulus
Or
modulus
of
rigidity
Hydraulic No Yes Bulk Solid
Modulus
Elastic Moduli
Reference
Questions
NCERT: 9.1, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.10, 9.11,
9.12, 9.13, 9.14, 9.15, 9.16
Workbook: 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 18, 20
