1

W RITING
C HA PTE R 3
UNDERSTANDING DATA
AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT IT
 The Learning Goals 3

Knowing Your Destination. Informing the Journey

choose appropriate quantitative research

design
describe sampling procedure and the
sample
construct an instrument and establishes its
validity and reliability

plan data collection procedure

plan data analysis using statistics and

hypothesis testing (if appropriate);
 Chapter 3 4

METHODOLOGY
Research Design

The Sample

The Instrument

Data Collection
Procedure

Plan for Data Analysis

 Research Design Participants are
5

What’s the plan? randomly selected.

There is an
experimental and a
Quantitative Research controlled group where
Designs the experimental group
is exposed to
treatment.
True Experimental
Design
Descriptive Correlational Experimental
Research
Quasi-Experimental
primarily Design
Used to concerned with Participants are not
Cross-sectional investigate the cause and effect randomly selected.
survey design is direction and relationships in
Pre-Experimental
done when data is magnitude of studies that Design
One-group pretest-
collected at a relationships involve posttest design
single point in among variables manipulation and provides a comparative
description of a group
time. in a particular measurement. It
of participants before
population. utilizes the and after the
method of experimental
treatment.
difference.
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 Research Design 9

Writing this section

This study is quantitative in nature

What is the general
since the research question we seek to
01 methodology or research
answer lead to numerical data.
design do you intend to
Specifically, the study is correlational
utilize in your proposed
as it aims to determine if there is an
02 Why did you choose this
study?
association between senior high school
research design?
students’ use of social media and their
attention span in class and assess
whether the degree of association What specific type of the
03
between these variables is significant. research design will you use?
Cristobal & Cristobal (2016) defines
correlation research as the research Why did you choose this
04
design employed to investigate the specific methodology?
direction and magnitude of
relationships among variables in a
particular population.
 Population and Sample 10

Sample Getting a fraction to understand the whole

A subgroup of the target
population that the Target Population
researcher plans to study A group of individuals with
for generalizing about the some common defining A more advanced research
target population. characteristic that the process is to select
researcher can identify and
study individuals or schools who
Population
are representative of the
a group of individuals population.
who have the same
characteristic
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SAMPLE a subset of individuals, items, or data

that a researcher selects from a larger population to
conduct their study.

POPULATION- Total of the objects,elements,person

and characteristics under condition.
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2 types of POPULATION

TARGET POPULATION-Actual population.

ACCESIBLE POPULATION-Portion of population.

 Sampling pertains to the systematic13

process of selecting the group to be

analyzed in the research study.
 The goal is to get information from a
group that represents the target
population.
 Once a good sample is obtained, the
generalizability and applicability of
findings increases.
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Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

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Slovin's formula

used in research to calculate the necessary

sample size (n) from a total population (N) for a
study, given a specified margin of error (e). The
formula is n = N / (1 + Ne²), where 'e' is the
margin of error. It's particularly useful when
there's little information available about the
population's behavior or distribution, allowing
researchers to determine an adequate sample
size for their study.
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Formula
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How to Use Slovin's Formula

1.Identify the population size (N):
This is the total number of individuals or items in the group
you want to study.
2.Determine the margin of error (e):
This is the acceptable level of risk or deviation from the
population's true characteristics. It's often expressed as a
decimal, such as 0.05 for a 5% margin of error.
3.Plug the values into the formula:
Insert your N and e values into the equation n = N / (1 + Ne²).
4.Calculate the sample size (n): The result, which should be
rounded up to the nearest whole number, is the number of
samples you need.
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Random sampling is the process of

selecting research participants from the
accessible population wherein each
member of the subset has an equal
probability or chance of being chosen.
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 Sampling Techniques 28

Probability Sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Drawing randomly from a list of Taking every kth element in

the population (e.g.: names from a the population as a sample,
hat, using a matrix of random where
numbers).
 Sampling Techniques 29

Probability Sampling

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING CLUSTER SAMPLING

a process in which certain The selection of groups, or
subgroups, or strata, are selected clusters, of subjects rather
for the sample in the same than individuals
proportion as they exist in the
population
 What type of random sampling is being described?
30

In the population, 60% are boys and 40% are girls. The names of boys
and of girls are placed in separate boxes. For a sample of 30 students (n
= 30), 18 boys and 12 girls are selected randomly from each subgroup or
box. The thirty students will be assigned as corridor monitors to help
maintain discipline in the hallways during dismissal time.

: From each of the 16 divisions in NCR, one section of Grade 12 High

School students are chosen to participate in a work program sponsored by
a leading manufacturing company to help them develop work and
relational skills
All names of Grade 10 students in School W are listed alphabetically and
assigned a number. Using a table of random numbers, names
corresponding to the numbers are selected to join a counseling program
to help them prepare for the challenges of Senior High School.
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Non-random sampling methods, members of the

accessible population do not have equal chance
of being selected.
-participants are chosen based on availability and
specific characteristics.
- these methods are faster and cheaper than
probability sampling but they are prone to
selection bias and limit the ability to generate
findings to the large population.
Non-random (or non-probability)
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sampling techniques
include convenience, quota, snowball, and
purposive sampling, where participants are chosen
based on subjective judgment or convenience
rather than random chance.
often used in qualitative or exploratory studies due
to time, cost, or logistical constraints, but they
introduce selection bias and limit the
generalizability of findings to the wider population.
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Here are some common non-random sampling

techniques:

Convenience Sampling:

Participants are chosen based on their easy

availability and proximity to the researcher. It is
a quick and inexpensive way to collect data,
often used for pilot studies or user poll
 Sampling Techniques 34

Non-Probability Sampling

3
QUOTA SAMPLING
CONVENIENCE The number of samples
SAMPLING is decided by the
is selecting a group of researcher and
individuals who are selection is also made
conveniently available out of availability of the
for study respondent.
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How it Works
Researchers select participants based on ease of
access, such as geographical proximity,
availability at a specific time, or willingness to
participate.
Participants are not chosen randomly, but rather
from the part of the population that is "close at
hand".
This method is often done in person, online, or
through other accessible channels.
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EXAMPLES

Surveys Standing at a subway station and

surveying passersby for public opinion on a local
issue.
Online Research A firm surveying customers from
their client database who frequently engage online.
Internal Studies A professor surveying faculty
within their own university about their professional
experiences.
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When to Use Convenience Sampling

Pilot Studies:
To test research methods, refine hypotheses, or gather
initial insights before a larger study.
Quick Data Collection:
When time and resources are limited, this method provides
fast, cost-effective results.
Exploratory Research:
When exploring new ideas or needing a preliminary "sense"
of what a target market might wan
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QUOTA SAMPLING

a non-probability research method that involves

dividing a population into subgroups (quotas)
based on specific characteristics, like age,
gender, or income, and then non-randomly
recruiting participants from each subgroup until
a predetermined number or proportion, known
as a "quota," is met
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How Quota Sampling Works

1.Identify Population Characteristics:
Determine the relevant characteristics (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, income)
of the target population that are important for the study.
2.Divide into Subgroups:
Divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups or "strata" based on
these characteristics.
3.Determine Quotas:
Establish the predetermined number or proportion of participants needed
from each subgroup to ensure they are represented proportionally in the
sample.

4.Recruit Participants Non-Randomly:

Recruit participants for the sample from each subgroup until the quotas for
those subgroups are filled.
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Example
Imagine a study on the career goals of university students.

1.Population:
The total number of students in the university.
2.Subgroups:
Freshers, juniors, and seniors.
3.Population Proportions:
Suppose the university has 30% freshers, 25% juniors, and 20%
seniors.
4.Quota Sample:
A sample of 1000 students would then need 300 freshers, 250
juniors, and 200 seniors to meet the quotas.
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Snowball Sampling:
Also known as referral sampling, this technique
involves asking existing participants to refer other
potential candidates who meet the study criteria. It
is useful for reaching hard-to-access or hidden
populations.
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How it Works
1.Initial Participants:
The researcher begins by identifying and recruiting a small number
of initial participants (the "seeds") who meet the study's criteria.
2.Referrals:
These participants are then asked to refer other individuals they
know who also meet the criteria.
3.Chain Continues:
The process repeats, with new participants referring more
individuals, allowing the sample to grow until the desired sample
size is reached or a point of saturation is met.
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Examples

1.Health Research:
Studying patients with a rare medical condition by asking initial
patients to refer others with the same condition.
2.Sociology:
Investigating patterns of informal leadership within a community
by asking influential individuals to name others who are also
influential.
3.Market Research:
Surveying owners of premium luxury cars by asking current
owners to recommend others they know who also own such
vehicle
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Purposive sampling

is a non-probability research technique where a

researcher intentionally selects participants for a
study based on their specific characteristics,
knowledge, or experiences that are relevant to
the research objective.
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Key Characteristics
Non-Probability:
Unlike random sampling, participants are not chosen randomly but
selected by the researcher.
Intentional Selection:
Participants are chosen with "purpose" based on predefined
criteria aligned with the study's goals.
Information-Rich Cases:
The goal is to select individuals or cases that can provide detailed
and insightful data related to the research question.
Focus on Depth:
The method emphasizes gaining deep understanding and insight
from a small, targeted sample.
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When to Use Purposive Sampling

1.Studying Specific Subgroups:
To focus on a particular group with specific traits or experiences.
2.Exploring Specific Phenomena:
To investigate unique, rare, or complex phenomena that require
detailed understanding.
3.Limited Resources:
When time and budget are limited, focusing on specific individuals
can be more efficient than random sampling.
4.Qualitative Research:
It is commonly used in qualitative studies to gather rich, nuanced
dat
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 Sampling Techniques 48

Non-Probability Sampling

3
QUOTA SAMPLING
CONVENIENCE The number of samples
SAMPLING is decided by the
is selecting a group of researcher and
individuals who are selection is also made
conveniently available out of availability of the
for study respondent.
 Sampling Techniques 49

Non-Probability Sampling

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING SNOWBALL SAMPLING

Using researcher’s judgment
to select a sample that they One sample leads on
believe, based on prior to more of the same
information, will provide the kind of sample.
data they need.
 What type of non-random sampling is being described? 50

: In a Grade 1 class of 30 pupils, there are 20 girls and 10 boys. If the teacher
wants to organize the class into groups of 5, to be headed by one pupil as a way
of applying cooperative learning, he/she can just select 4 girls and 2 boys. This
is in keeping with the proportion of girls and boys in the class who exhibit
leadership and initiative, and who are quite popular among their peers. The
selection does not necessarily have to be random.
A reading remediation is conceptualized as intervention or treatment designed
to help Grade 2 pupils who have reading difficulties. The teacher then gives a
reading test and selects five pupils who scored lowest.

Prior to the institution of buddy system to help those who are struggling with
Algebra in one Grade 7 class, the teacher-investigator may be curious to find out
how prospective participants might respond to the intervention. As a preliminary
study, he or she meets up with one prospective buddy who is doing well in the
subject and has a pleasant personality. He or she can therefore assist a
classmate who is having difficulties with the subject. The Researcher may ask
this prospective buddy for names of classmates who might also be willing to
help others as a buddy.
hink of this 51

A researcher wants to conduct

a practical research in order to
determine the effectiveness of
peer counseling on decreasing
the truancy of his classmates.
Of his 56 classmates, he has
selected 20 whose residences
are within a kilometer’s radius
from the school.

What sampling technique did

the researcher use?
Identify what sampling techniques are being described in the
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following situations.
1. A marketing research firm wants to understand the preferences of customers
who buy high-end luxury cars. They selected customers who have purchased
luxury cars in the last year and have a household income above a certain
threshold to participate in in-depth interviews.
2. An undergraduate student wants to conduct a quick survey on campus food
preferences. They approach students in the campus cafeteria during lunchtime
and ask them to participate in the survey.
3. A research team is conducting a study on the eating habits of children in a
particular city. They divide the city into several neighborhoods and randomly
select a few neighborhoods. Within each selected neighborhood, they survey all
the children in a random sample of households.
4. In a large conference with 500 attendees, the organizers want to survey the
satisfaction level of participants. They decide to survey every 10th attendee
who registers at the conference booth to ensure a representative sample.
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The Sample
The target population of the study are the senior high school
students during the second term of the academic year, 2017-2018
of Valencia National in Valencia City. These students belong to
three different strands of the SHS program, namely: Accountancy
and Business Management (ABM); Humanities and Social Sciences
(HUMSS); Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM).

With a population size of 500, the researchers will consider a

sample of 223 respondents determined using Slovin’s formula for
computing sample size with a five percent margin of error. These
samples shall be randomly selected through stratified random
sampling with the SHS strands being used to define groups and
SPSS to randomly determine the samples.
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 The Instrument
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The Key to Finding the Answers

A survey questionnaire is a
1 This refers to the questionnaire
or data gathering tool to be
commonly used type of instrument in
research that lists questions about a
constructed, validated and topic with spaces for responses.
administered.
If researcher-made, it must be Yes/No Coding
2 tested for validity and
Do you consider
research to be
I use my phone during
class.
reliability. important? ___ 4 Always
Recognition ___ 3 Often
If adopted, the student should
3 indicate its description as to its
Which of the following
do you consider in
buying a phone?
___ 2 Seldom
___ 1 Never

items, scoring and ___ brand name Subjective

qualification. ___ price How do you feel when

4 The researcher must explain

its parts, and how the
___ specs
___ others, please
specify
you leave your phone
at home accidentally.

instrument will be validated. Completion TYPES of

The instrument to be used When I hear my phone
ring, I
QUESTIONS
should be appended. _____________________