Research methodology Chapter 2
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This document discusses various research methods used in scientific studies, including qualitative methods, quantitative methods, field studies, surveys, interviews, case studies, experiments, and opinion polls. It provides details on how each method is conducted and what types of research questions it can help answer. For example, it explains that quantitative research uses large standardized samples and objective measurements to test theories, while qualitative research uses small flexible samples, in-depth interviews, and interpretation to understand meanings and discover new ideas.
Research methodology Chapter 2
- 1. Research Methodology Chapter 2 Nagendra Amatya Associate Professor Science and Humanities Department Central Campus Pulchowk [email protected]
- 2. Methods of Research • Qualitative method • Quantitative method • Field study method • Library method • Experimental method • Survey method • Interview method • Case study method of research • Questionnaire method • Opinion poll method • Empirical method • Analytical method • Verstehen method • Sample method • Ideal types of method • Interdisciplinary method
- 3. Quantitative vs Qualitative Research Quantitative Research: Quantitative Research options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents are involved. By definition, measurement must be objective, quantitative and statistically valid. Simply put, it’s about numbers, objective hard data . The sample size for a survey is calculated by statisticians using formulas to determine how large a sample size will be needed from a given population in order to achieve findings with an acceptable degree of accuracy. Generally, researchers seek sample sizes which yield findings with at least a 95% confidence interval (which means that if you repeat the survey 100 times, 95 times out of a hundred, you would get the same response), plus/minus a margin error of 5 percentage points. Many surveys are designed to produce a smaller margin of error. Qualitative Research Qualitative Research is collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Whereas, quantitative research refers to counts and measures of things, qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things. Qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research and uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of people are interviewed in-depth and/or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted. Participants are asked to respond to general questions and the interviewer or group moderator probes and explores their responses to identify and define people’s perceptions, opinions and feelings about the topic or idea being discussed and to determine the degree of agreement that exists in the group. The quality of the finding from qualitative research is directly dependent upon the skills, experience and sensitive of the interviewer or group moderator. This type of research is often less costly than surveys and is extremely effective in acquiring information about people’s communications needs and their responses to and views about specific communications
- 4. Characteristic of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative Qualitative Objective subjective Research Question: How many? Strength of association ? etc Research question : What? Why ?etc. "Hard" science Soft" science Literature review must be done early in study literature review may be done as study progresses or afterward Test theory develops theory One reality: focus is concise and narrow Multiple realities: focus is complex and broad Reduction, control, precision Discovery, description, understanding, shared interpretation Facts are value-free and unbiased Facts are value-laden and biased Measurable Interpretive Mechanistic: parts equal the whole Organismic: whole is greater than the parts Report statistical analysis. Basic element of analysis is numbers Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation. Basic element of analysis is words/ideas.
- 5. Researcher is separate Researcher is part of process Subjective Participants Context free Context dependent Hypothesis Research question Reasoning is logistic and deductive Reasoning is logistic and inductive Establishes relationships, causation Describes meaning, discovery Uses instrument uses communications and observation Strives for generalization Generalizations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding Strives for uniqueness Patterns and theories developed for understanding Highly controlled setting: experimental setting (outcome oriented) Flexible approach: natural setting (process oriented) Sample size: n sample size is not a concern; seeks "informal rich" sample "Counts the beans” ides information as to "which beans are worth counting"
- 6. Case Study A case study offers an opportunity to study a particular subject, e.g. one organisation, in depth, or a group of people, and usually involves gathering and analysing information; information that may be both qualitative and quantitative. Case studies can be used to formulate theories, or be:
- 7. • Descriptive (e.g. where current practice is described in detail) • Illustrative (e.g. where the case studies illustrate new practices adopted by an organisation • Experimental (e.g. where difficulties in adopting new practices or procedures are examined) • Explanatory (e.g. where theories are used as a basis for understanding and explaining practices or procedures).
- 8. SURVEYS Method. • Surveys involve selecting a representative and unbiased sample of subjects drawn from the group you wish to study. • The main methods of asking questions are by face-to-face or telephone interviews, by using questionnaires or a mixture of the two. • There are two main types of survey: a descriptive survey: concerned • with identifying & counting the frequency of a particular response among • the survey group, or an analytical survey: to analyse the relationship between different elements (variables) in a sample group.
- 9. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES • Experimental studies are done in carefully controlled and structured environments and enable the causal relationships of phenomena to be identified and analysed. • The variables can be manipulated or controlled to observe the effects on the subjects studied. For example, sound, light, heat, volume of work levels etc can be managed to observe the effects. • Studies done in laboratories tend to offer the best opportunities for controlling the variables in a rigorous way, although field studies can be done in a more ‘real world’ environment. However, with the former, the
- 10. INTERVIEWS Method Interviews can be grouped into three main types: 1. Structured Structured Interviews Structured interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a predetermined and identical set of questions. The questions are usually read out by a researcher in a neutral tone of voice to avoid influencing or prompting a particular response from a participant. (see also the section on questionnaires) 2. Semi-structured The interviewer will have a list of themes and areas to be covered and there may be some standardised questions, but the interviewer may omit or add to some of these questions or areas, depending on the situation and the flow of the conversation. 3. Unstructured These are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in depth a particular topic with another person in a spontaneous way. However, even in unstructured interviews it is likely that the researcher would have a pre-decided range of topics to cover in the discussion.
- 11. Field study Method What are field studies? Research projects that are conducted outdoors ("in the field"); this may be in the school yard or at a remote location such as a park or beach. Field studies may be DESCRIPTIVE (e.g. preparing a list of all of the different types of plants found on campus, or comparing the types of birds observed at two different locations) or MANIPULATIVE (where some environmental VARIABLE is altered and the outcomes are measured). Why conduct field studies? Students learn best by hands-on opportunities; they are more likely to retain information and understand its relevance when they actually apply the information. Field studies can incorporate many different subject areas; for example, a project to map plant life on campus will include biology, math, geography (in addition to the mapping process, students may research the plants and determine their native countries), and may also incorporate English and art. Field studies require students to work cooperatively and provide first-hand evidence of the need for proper experimental design (repetition, hypothesis testing, data analysis, etc.).
- 12. Opinion poll method • The process of polling is often mysterious, particularly to those who don’t see how the views of 1,000 people can represent an entire population. It is first and foremost crucial to remember that polls are not trying to reflect individuals’ thinking in all their complexity; all they are trying to do is estimate how the population would respond to a series of closed-ended options, such as, “should tax cuts or new spending be a higher priority?”
- 13. EMPIRICAL(experimental) RESEARCH METHODS Empirical research methods are a class of research methods in which empirical observations or data are collected in order to answer particular research questions. While primarily used in academic research, they can also be useful in answering practical questions.