Sports Performance
- 1. Health, EnergyHealth, Energy Systems, Training andSystems, Training and ImprovingImproving PerformancePerformance Semester 2Semester 2 Term 4Term 4
- 2. Physical ActivityPhysical Activity Defined as participation in some sortDefined as participation in some sort of bodily exercise, either on aof bodily exercise, either on a recreational or occupational basis.recreational or occupational basis. PlayPlay ““An enjoyable experience derivedAn enjoyable experience derived from behaviour which is self-from behaviour which is self- initiated, tolerant of abilities, andinitiated, tolerant of abilities, and develops rules spontaneously. Itdevelops rules spontaneously. It does not have a predetermineddoes not have a predetermined ending with a victor or reward.”ending with a victor or reward.” (Singer, 1975)(Singer, 1975)
- 3. Sport is a human activity that involvesSport is a human activity that involves “specific organisational and historical“specific organisational and historical background of rules which define thebackground of rules which define the object and limit the pattern of humanobject and limit the pattern of human behaviour; it involves competition orbehaviour; it involves competition or challenge and a definite outcomechallenge and a definite outcome primarily determined by physicalprimarily determined by physical skill.”skill.” (Singer, 1975)(Singer, 1975) HealthHealth vs.vs. Physical FitnessPhysical Fitness Health is a state of complete physical,Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and emotionalmental, social and emotional wellbeing.wellbeing. Health can be defined asHealth can be defined as TOTALTOTAL FITNESSFITNESS..
- 5. A strong relationship and interactionA strong relationship and interaction exists between the 4 aspects.exists between the 4 aspects. Examples.Examples. Self esteem (Emotional) & BodySelf esteem (Emotional) & Body image (Physical)image (Physical) Academic performance (Mental) &Academic performance (Mental) & Activity levels (Physical)Activity levels (Physical) Depression (Mental) & ExerciseDepression (Mental) & Exercise (Physical)(Physical)
- 6. Physical Fitness can be describedPhysical Fitness can be described as the ability of the body toas the ability of the body to function efficiently andfunction efficiently and effectively allowing an individualeffectively allowing an individual to perform daily tasks with ease,to perform daily tasks with ease, leaving enough energy forleaving enough energy for unexpected emergencies andunexpected emergencies and active leisure time.active leisure time. World Health OrganisationWorld Health Organisation HEALTH relates to the totalHEALTH relates to the total person,person, while FITNESS relates to thewhile FITNESS relates to the physical attributes of a person.physical attributes of a person.
- 7. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION Exercise Physiology is the descriptionExercise Physiology is the description and explanation of functionaland explanation of functional changes brought about by singlechanges brought about by single (acute) or repeated exercise(acute) or repeated exercise sessions (chronic exercise orsessions (chronic exercise or training), often the object oftraining), often the object of improving the exercise response.improving the exercise response. In this definition the description ofIn this definition the description of functional changes refers to whatfunctional changes refers to what happens to the body and thehappens to the body and the explanation refers to understandingexplanation refers to understanding how the changes occur.how the changes occur.
- 8. For example,For example, we know that repeated lifting ofwe know that repeated lifting of heavy weights usually results in greaterheavy weights usually results in greater ability to lift even heavier weights.ability to lift even heavier weights. This functional change brought about byThis functional change brought about by repeated bouts of exercise can berepeated bouts of exercise can be explained partly by an increased growth ofexplained partly by an increased growth of muscle tissue and partly by an improvedmuscle tissue and partly by an improved ability of the nervous system to causeability of the nervous system to cause greater number of muscle fibres to contractgreater number of muscle fibres to contract simultaneously for the greatest possiblesimultaneously for the greatest possible force of contraction of the entire muscle.force of contraction of the entire muscle. This understanding of how weight lifting abilityThis understanding of how weight lifting ability develops has led to better trainingdevelops has led to better training programs to improve the liftingprograms to improve the lifting performance.performance.
- 9. ENERGYENERGY Energy is the capacity to generate activity, to produceEnergy is the capacity to generate activity, to produce or do work.or do work. The Human body produces and uses energy in orderThe Human body produces and uses energy in order to perform a variety of tasks including:to perform a variety of tasks including: The maintenance of vital autonomous functionsThe maintenance of vital autonomous functions such as electrical brain activity, breathing andsuch as electrical brain activity, breathing and circulation, body temperature regulation andcirculation, body temperature regulation and hormonal activity.hormonal activity. The digestive process.The digestive process. Physical activity.Physical activity. Energy comes originally from the food we eat.Energy comes originally from the food we eat. Through digestion, food is broken down and stored inThrough digestion, food is broken down and stored in our cells in the form of chemical energy reservesour cells in the form of chemical energy reserves waiting to be used.waiting to be used. Energy is measured in units, that is, kilojoules orEnergy is measured in units, that is, kilojoules or calories.calories.
- 10. FUEL FOR EXCERCISEFUEL FOR EXCERCISE Our body’s energy needs come fromOur body’s energy needs come from the breakdown of the nutrientsthe breakdown of the nutrients carbohydrates, fats and proteins, incarbohydrates, fats and proteins, in the food we eat.the food we eat. CarbohydratesCarbohydrates – preferred source– preferred source of fuelof fuel ProteinProtein – normally not used as fuel– normally not used as fuel but for growth and repairbut for growth and repair FatsFats - acts as a concentrated fuel- acts as a concentrated fuel source in muscles. It is the body’ssource in muscles. It is the body’s main source of fuel at rest andmain source of fuel at rest and during prolonged sub maximalduring prolonged sub maximal exercise.exercise. Water, minerals and vitaminsWater, minerals and vitamins (although not used directly for fuel)(although not used directly for fuel)
- 11. However, the energy released duringHowever, the energy released during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fatsthe breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is not immediatelyand proteins is not immediately used. Instead an important energyused. Instead an important energy rich chemical compound known asrich chemical compound known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) isATP (adenosine triphosphate) is formed.formed. Energy is released when ATP isEnergy is released when ATP is broken down. The ATP stored in thebroken down. The ATP stored in the muscles is used up within seconds,muscles is used up within seconds, so it is vital to keep making ATP soso it is vital to keep making ATP so the muscles can keep contracting.the muscles can keep contracting.
- 12. Energy for muscular activity comesEnergy for muscular activity comes from the chemical compoundfrom the chemical compound ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPATE (ATP).ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPATE (ATP). This compound contains anThis compound contains an adenosine molecule with three (tri)adenosine molecule with three (tri) phosphate groups attached.phosphate groups attached. ATP stored in the muscles is very smallATP stored in the muscles is very small and lasts only 1 – 2 seconds. Theand lasts only 1 – 2 seconds. The body is able to replenish as quick asbody is able to replenish as quick as it is broken down. This is achievedit is broken down. This is achieved by resynthesising (rebuilding) ATPby resynthesising (rebuilding) ATP through the break down of reservethrough the break down of reserve fuels.fuels.
- 13. ATP DEPLETIONATP DEPLETION As the duration of exercise increasesAs the duration of exercise increases and as the reserves of ATP stored inand as the reserves of ATP stored in the muscles runs out, our bodythe muscles runs out, our body needs to find new ways ofneeds to find new ways of resynthesising ATP, otherwise weresynthesising ATP, otherwise we would collapse from exhaustion.would collapse from exhaustion. The body solves this problem by goingThe body solves this problem by going back to the stored nutrients toback to the stored nutrients to resynthesise more ATP.resynthesise more ATP. These stored nutrients are used in aThese stored nutrients are used in a particular order as illustrated below:particular order as illustrated below:
- 15. THREE ENERGY SYSTEMSTHREE ENERGY SYSTEMS 1.1. The ATP-PC System also called the alactacidThe ATP-PC System also called the alactacid systemsystem 2.2. The Lactic Acid System also call anaerobicThe Lactic Acid System also call anaerobic glycolysisglycolysis 3.3. The Aerobic System also called the oxygen systemThe Aerobic System also called the oxygen system Which Energy System is Used and When?Which Energy System is Used and When? There are many factors which determine which energyThere are many factors which determine which energy system is used and when, depending on:system is used and when, depending on: Whether the individual is resting or exercising (orWhether the individual is resting or exercising (or both)both) The duration of the exerciseThe duration of the exercise The intensity of the exerciseThe intensity of the exercise The athlete’s level of fitness at the timeThe athlete’s level of fitness at the time The body needs a combination of the three energyThe body needs a combination of the three energy systems to supply energy for most activitiessystems to supply energy for most activities particularly team games.particularly team games.
- 16. ATP-PC SYSTEMATP-PC SYSTEM This system provides energy for activities ofThis system provides energy for activities of short duration (up to 10 seconds) and highshort duration (up to 10 seconds) and high intensity (85-100% maximal effort). Theintensity (85-100% maximal effort). The ATP-PC system is an anaerobic systemATP-PC system is an anaerobic system (without oxygen) because the body does(without oxygen) because the body does not have enough time to deliver the oxygennot have enough time to deliver the oxygen for energy production in less than 10for energy production in less than 10 seconds. It is sometimes called the Alacticseconds. It is sometimes called the Alactic System because no lactic acid is producedSystem because no lactic acid is produced during this kind of energy production.during this kind of energy production. For this reason it is the predominant systemFor this reason it is the predominant system used in short bursts of activity such as 100-used in short bursts of activity such as 100- metre sprint, high jump, running to firstmetre sprint, high jump, running to first base, fast bowling in cricket and shot put.base, fast bowling in cricket and shot put.
- 17. When chemical bonds of the ATP moleculeWhen chemical bonds of the ATP molecule are broken, energy is released. Becauseare broken, energy is released. Because there is only a limited supply of ATP inthere is only a limited supply of ATP in muscles, it must be resynthesised frommuscles, it must be resynthesised from ADP + Pi (Pi is a free phosphate molecule),ADP + Pi (Pi is a free phosphate molecule), which also requires energy. This energy iswhich also requires energy. This energy is obtained from the breakdown of aobtained from the breakdown of a phosphate compound stored in musclesphosphate compound stored in muscles called creatine phosphate or PC.called creatine phosphate or PC. As rapidly as ATP is broken down duringAs rapidly as ATP is broken down during muscular contractions, it is beingmuscular contractions, it is being resynthesised by from ADP + Pi by theresynthesised by from ADP + Pi by the energy provided by the breakdown of PCenergy provided by the breakdown of PC stored in the muscles. This process occursstored in the muscles. This process occurs without the use of oxygen.without the use of oxygen.
- 18. Once the supply of CP runs lowOnce the supply of CP runs low and we stop exercising it takesand we stop exercising it takes about 2 minutes to replenish theabout 2 minutes to replenish the stores. Oxygen is used tostores. Oxygen is used to rebuild the CP, which is why werebuild the CP, which is why we breathe heavily after a sprint orbreathe heavily after a sprint or high intensity burst.high intensity burst.
- 20. ATP-PC SystemATP-PC System A high-energy phosphate bond is broken to release energy to rebuild ATP from ADP and Pi.
- 21. LACTIC ACID SYSTEMLACTIC ACID SYSTEM This is also a system that requiresThis is also a system that requires nono oxygenoxygen. Also known as Anaerobic. Also known as Anaerobic Glycolysis, this system becomes activeGlycolysis, this system becomes active when we require energy beyond thewhen we require energy beyond the capacity of the ATP-PC system. Thecapacity of the ATP-PC system. The Lactic Acid system provides energy forLactic Acid system provides energy for high intensity activities lasting from 10high intensity activities lasting from 10 seconds up until 2 – 3 minutes in someseconds up until 2 – 3 minutes in some elite athletes.elite athletes. For this reason it is the predominant systemFor this reason it is the predominant system used inused in longer bursts of high intensitylonger bursts of high intensity activity such as 400-metre and 800-metreactivity such as 400-metre and 800-metre running eventsrunning events
- 22. It is a chemical pathway used toIt is a chemical pathway used to produce ATP from the partialproduce ATP from the partial breakdown of glucose with a by-breakdown of glucose with a by- product of lactate (lactic acid). Itproduct of lactate (lactic acid). It uses carbohydrates for as its mainuses carbohydrates for as its main fuel source for rebuilding ATP.fuel source for rebuilding ATP. Carbohydrates are broken down inCarbohydrates are broken down in the digestive system into glucose.the digestive system into glucose. Most of the glucose is distributed viaMost of the glucose is distributed via the bloodstream, into muscles (inthe bloodstream, into muscles (in large quantities) and the liver (to belarge quantities) and the liver (to be stored as glycogen or if in excess asstored as glycogen or if in excess as adipose tissue or fat).adipose tissue or fat).
- 23. A process called glycolysis dissolves or breaks down theA process called glycolysis dissolves or breaks down the sugar (glycogen and glucose) into pyruvic acid. Duringsugar (glycogen and glucose) into pyruvic acid. During this breakdown, energy is released which is used tothis breakdown, energy is released which is used to resynthesise ATP. (Because oxygen is not present, theresynthesise ATP. (Because oxygen is not present, the breaking down of glycogen is incomplete, resulting in thebreaking down of glycogen is incomplete, resulting in the formation of a waste product called lactic acid). Due toformation of a waste product called lactic acid). Due to the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted intothe absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid, with no further energy being released for ATPlactic acid, with no further energy being released for ATP resynthesis. When lactate and hydrogen ions accumulateresynthesis. When lactate and hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscles during high intensity exercise, muscularin the muscles during high intensity exercise, muscular contractions are inhibited due to fatigue and sorenesscontractions are inhibited due to fatigue and soreness (stiffness). A high amount of lactic acid in the muscles(stiffness). A high amount of lactic acid in the muscles during exertion causes muscular fatigue. The body canduring exertion causes muscular fatigue. The body can tolerate increasing levels of lactic acid production onlytolerate increasing levels of lactic acid production only until the lactate accumulation rate is greater than theuntil the lactate accumulation rate is greater than the body’s ability to remove it. Lactate cannot get out into thebody’s ability to remove it. Lactate cannot get out into the bloodstream because the bloodstream is saturated ie.bloodstream because the bloodstream is saturated ie. Has a higher concentration of lactate than the muscle cell.Has a higher concentration of lactate than the muscle cell. When this occurs it is called the Lactate Threshold. ThisWhen this occurs it is called the Lactate Threshold. This level for everyday people is about 70% of their maximumlevel for everyday people is about 70% of their maximum heart rate and for elite athletes it is 90% of their maximumheart rate and for elite athletes it is 90% of their maximum heart rate. Once an athlete passes this threshold theyheart rate. Once an athlete passes this threshold they must reduce or stop their muscular effort. The lactic acidmust reduce or stop their muscular effort. The lactic acid is only dissipated when the athlete ceases exercise.is only dissipated when the athlete ceases exercise.
- 24. In all-out efforts such as the 400m runIn all-out efforts such as the 400m run or the 100m swim, these athletesor the 100m swim, these athletes may reach their lactate thresholdmay reach their lactate threshold towards the end of the race, whichtowards the end of the race, which can be endured when the end is socan be endured when the end is so near, but a team game athlete isnear, but a team game athlete is placed in a different situation.placed in a different situation. Lactate threshold can happen at anyLactate threshold can happen at any time during the game due to differingtime during the game due to differing intensities and longer duration sointensities and longer duration so therefore substitution or time outstherefore substitution or time outs need to be utilized effectively.need to be utilized effectively.
- 27. The Aerobic or Oxygen SystemThe Aerobic or Oxygen System This system requires oxygen and is also known asThis system requires oxygen and is also known as aerobic glycolysis. The oxygen system providesaerobic glycolysis. The oxygen system provides energy for prolonged physical activity of 2 – 3energy for prolonged physical activity of 2 – 3 minutes or more of low to moderate intensity (subminutes or more of low to moderate intensity (sub maximal exercise). Energy is produced in themaximal exercise). Energy is produced in the presence of oxygen, which has been transportedpresence of oxygen, which has been transported from the lungs through the blood and into thefrom the lungs through the blood and into the mitochondria in the muscle cells. It takes the bodymitochondria in the muscle cells. It takes the body 2-3 minutes to increase its oxygen consumption2-3 minutes to increase its oxygen consumption from the resting level to a higher level in responsefrom the resting level to a higher level in response to the demands of shorter and more explosiveto the demands of shorter and more explosive exercise. This system can create 38 molecules ofexercise. This system can create 38 molecules of ATP from 1 molecule of oxygen (anaerobicATP from 1 molecule of oxygen (anaerobic glycolysis can only create 2). This extra amount isglycolysis can only create 2). This extra amount is possible because the abundance of oxygen allowspossible because the abundance of oxygen allows a more complete breakdown of glucose as pyruvica more complete breakdown of glucose as pyruvic acid and can be broken down further rather thanacid and can be broken down further rather than being converted to lactic acid.being converted to lactic acid.
- 28. For this reason it is the predominant systemFor this reason it is the predominant system used in continuous activity of sub maximalused in continuous activity of sub maximal intensity such as 1500-metre swimming,intensity such as 1500-metre swimming, long distance running.long distance running. The intensity of these activities does notThe intensity of these activities does not exceed 85% of the maximal heart rate soexceed 85% of the maximal heart rate so enough oxygen will be present after 2-3enough oxygen will be present after 2-3 minutes to prevent lactic acid fromminutes to prevent lactic acid from accumulating and the glycogen can beaccumulating and the glycogen can be completely broken down. This allowscompletely broken down. This allows energy to resynthesise a substantialenergy to resynthesise a substantial amount of ATP. The waste productsamount of ATP. The waste products carbon dioxide, water and heat are by-carbon dioxide, water and heat are by- products of the complete chemicalproducts of the complete chemical breakdown of glycogen (and fat).breakdown of glycogen (and fat).
- 29. Any activities that exceed intensity levels ofAny activities that exceed intensity levels of 85% of maximal heart rate, promote the85% of maximal heart rate, promote the accumulation of lactic acid, which results inaccumulation of lactic acid, which results in fatigue. This means that the body cannotfatigue. This means that the body cannot sustain activity at this intensity and requiressustain activity at this intensity and requires recovery. This is referred to as therecovery. This is referred to as the anaerobic threshold. Performanceanaerobic threshold. Performance improves when athletes can tolerate highimproves when athletes can tolerate high levels of lactic acid, which can be achievedlevels of lactic acid, which can be achieved through training.through training. Aerobic glycolysis chemical reactions, like allAerobic glycolysis chemical reactions, like all energy systems, are conducted withinenergy systems, are conducted within muscle cells. Aerobic glycolysis howevermuscle cells. Aerobic glycolysis however occurs within a specialised component ofoccurs within a specialised component of muscle cells called mitochondria. ATPmuscle cells called mitochondria. ATP produced in the mitochondria is transportedproduced in the mitochondria is transported to myosin cross bridges when required, toto myosin cross bridges when required, to provide the energy for muscularprovide the energy for muscular contraction.contraction.
- 32. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMSTHE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS
- 33. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMSTHE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS
- 34. Area On Chart Performance Time Major Energy System(s) Involved Example A Less Than 30 Seconds ATP-PC System 100m Sprint B 30 to 90 Seconds ATP-PC System Lactic Acid System 200m - 400m Sprint 100m Swim C 90 Seconds to 3 Minutes Lactic Acid System Oxygen System Boxing (3m Rounds) 800m Run D Over 3 Minutes Oxygen System Aerobics Class Marathon
- 35. ANAEROBIC AND AEROBICANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC GLYCOLYSISGLYCOLYSIS
- 37. Anaerobic and Aerobic ThresholdsAnaerobic and Aerobic Thresholds These thresholds relate to their respective energyThese thresholds relate to their respective energy systems.systems. The first stage involves aerobic metabolism and isThe first stage involves aerobic metabolism and is generally characterized by heart rates below 130generally characterized by heart rates below 130 bpm. Blood lactate levels don’t change much frombpm. Blood lactate levels don’t change much from resting levels and ventilation only slightly increases.resting levels and ventilation only slightly increases. The second stage orThe second stage or Aerobic ThresholdAerobic Threshold occurs atoccurs at about 40 – 60% of VO2 max or a heart rate ofabout 40 – 60% of VO2 max or a heart rate of between 130 – 150 bpm. This level can bebetween 130 – 150 bpm. This level can be maintained for up to 3 – 4 hours as blood lactatemaintained for up to 3 – 4 hours as blood lactate and ventilation slowly increases.and ventilation slowly increases. If the exercise intensity is increased, heart rate, bloodIf the exercise intensity is increased, heart rate, blood lactate and ventilation will rise sharply. This effortlactate and ventilation will rise sharply. This effort can be maintained no longer than a few minutes.can be maintained no longer than a few minutes. This is calledThis is called Anaerobic ThresholdAnaerobic Threshold..
- 39. THE HEATH – CARTERTHE HEATH – CARTER ANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPEANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPE The technique of somatotyping is used toThe technique of somatotyping is used to appraise body shape and composition.appraise body shape and composition. It is expressed in a three-number ratingIt is expressed in a three-number rating representing endomorphy (relativerepresenting endomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relativefatness), mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness) andmusculoskeletal robustness) and ectomorphy (relative linearity orectomorphy (relative linearity or slenderness) – always in the same order.slenderness) – always in the same order. Each component is rated. Ratings of ½ toEach component is rated. Ratings of ½ to 2 ½ are considered low, 3 to 5 are2 ½ are considered low, 3 to 5 are moderate, 5 ½ to 7 are high and 7 ½ andmoderate, 5 ½ to 7 are high and 7 ½ and above are very high.above are very high. For example: a 3-7-1 rating may be that ofFor example: a 3-7-1 rating may be that of a weight lifter (high musculature which hasa weight lifter (high musculature which has tendencies to mesomorph composition)tendencies to mesomorph composition) and a swimmer as 2-5-3and a swimmer as 2-5-3
- 40. Ten anthropometric measurements are needed toTen anthropometric measurements are needed to calculate the anthropometric somatotype.calculate the anthropometric somatotype. 1.1. Stature (height). Taken against a height scale orStature (height). Taken against a height scale or stadiometer. Take height with the subject standingstadiometer. Take height with the subject standing straight, against an upright wall or stadiometer,straight, against an upright wall or stadiometer, touching the wall with heels, buttocks and back.touching the wall with heels, buttocks and back. Orient the head in the Frankfort plane (the upperOrient the head in the Frankfort plane (the upper border of the ear opening and the lower border ofborder of the ear opening and the lower border of the eye socket on a horizontal line), and the heelsthe eye socket on a horizontal line), and the heels together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward andtogether. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and to take and hold a full breath. Lower the headboardto take and hold a full breath. Lower the headboard until it firmly touches the vertex.until it firmly touches the vertex. 2. Body mass (weight). The subject, wearing minimal2. Body mass (weight). The subject, wearing minimal clothing, stands in the center of the scale platform.clothing, stands in the center of the scale platform. Record weight to the nearest tenth of a kilogram. ARecord weight to the nearest tenth of a kilogram. A correction is made for clothing so that nude weightcorrection is made for clothing so that nude weight is used in subsequent calculations.is used in subsequent calculations.
- 41. Skinfolds. Raise a fold of skin and subcutaneousSkinfolds. Raise a fold of skin and subcutaneous tissue firmly between thumb and forefinger of thetissue firmly between thumb and forefinger of the left hand and away from the underlying muscle atleft hand and away from the underlying muscle at the marked site. Apply the edge of the plates onthe marked site. Apply the edge of the plates on the caliper branches 1 cm below the fingers of thethe caliper branches 1 cm below the fingers of the left hand and allow them to exert their full pressureleft hand and allow them to exert their full pressure before reading at 2 sec the thickness of the fold.before reading at 2 sec the thickness of the fold. Take all skinfolds on the right side of the body. TheTake all skinfolds on the right side of the body. The subject stands relaxed, except for the calf skinfold,subject stands relaxed, except for the calf skinfold, which is taken with the subject seated.which is taken with the subject seated. 3. Triceps skinfold. With the subject's arm hanging3. Triceps skinfold. With the subject's arm hanging loosely in the anatomical position, raise a fold atloosely in the anatomical position, raise a fold at the back of the arm at a level halfway on a linethe back of the arm at a level halfway on a line connecting the acromion and the olecranonconnecting the acromion and the olecranon processes.processes. 4. Subscapular skinfold. Raise the subscapular4. Subscapular skinfold. Raise the subscapular skinfold on a line from the inferior angle of theskinfold on a line from the inferior angle of the scapula in a direction that is obliquely downwardsscapula in a direction that is obliquely downwards and laterally at 45 degrees.and laterally at 45 degrees.
- 42. 5.5. Supraspinale skinfold. Raise the fold 5-7 cmSupraspinale skinfold. Raise the fold 5-7 cm (depending on the size of the subject) above the(depending on the size of the subject) above the anterior superior iliac spine on a line to theanterior superior iliac spine on a line to the anterior axillary border and on a diagonal lineanterior axillary border and on a diagonal line going downwards and medially at 45 degrees.going downwards and medially at 45 degrees. (This skinfold was formerly called suprailiac, or(This skinfold was formerly called suprailiac, or anterior suprailiac. The name has been changedanterior suprailiac. The name has been changed to distinguish it from other skinfolds calledto distinguish it from other skinfolds called "suprailiac", but taken at different locations.)"suprailiac", but taken at different locations.) 6.6. Medial calf skinfold. Raise a vertical skinfold onMedial calf skinfold. Raise a vertical skinfold on the medial side of the leg, at the level of thethe medial side of the leg, at the level of the maximum girth of the calf.maximum girth of the calf. 7. Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The7. Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The width between the medial and lateral epicondyleswidth between the medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus, with the shoulder and elbowof the humerus, with the shoulder and elbow flexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at anflexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at an angle approximately bisecting the angle of theangle approximately bisecting the angle of the elbow. Place firm pressure on the crossbars inelbow. Place firm pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.
- 43. 8.8. Biepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat theBiepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat the subject with knee bent at a right angle. Measure thesubject with knee bent at a right angle. Measure the greatest distance between the lateral and medialgreatest distance between the lateral and medial epicondyles of the femur with firm pressure on theepicondyles of the femur with firm pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneouscrossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.tissue. 9.9. Upper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. TheUpper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. The subject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees and thesubject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees and the elbow to 45 degrees, clenches the hand, and maximallyelbow to 45 degrees, clenches the hand, and maximally contracts the elbow flexors and extensors. Take thecontracts the elbow flexors and extensors. Take the measurement at the greatest girth of the arm.measurement at the greatest girth of the arm. 10.10. Calf girth, right. The subject stands with feet slightlyCalf girth, right. The subject stands with feet slightly apart. Place the tape around the calf and measure theapart. Place the tape around the calf and measure the maximum circumference.maximum circumference. From these measurements you can calculate theFrom these measurements you can calculate the anthropometric somatotype byanthropometric somatotype by Entering the data onto a somatotype formEntering the data onto a somatotype form Entering the data into equations derived from the ratingEntering the data into equations derived from the rating formform
- 44. SUITABILITY OF PHYSIQUESUITABILITY OF PHYSIQUE TRIATHLETETRIATHLETE Triathletes are more muscular than runners but withTriathletes are more muscular than runners but with less leg development than cyclists and less upperless leg development than cyclists and less upper body development than swimmers. Low bodybody development than swimmers. Low body weight improves the power-to-weight ratio.weight improves the power-to-weight ratio. HOCKEYHOCKEY Short legs boost balance and stability, allowing playersShort legs boost balance and stability, allowing players to pivot. They also can prevent back injuries.to pivot. They also can prevent back injuries. Speed and aerobic endurance are musts.Speed and aerobic endurance are musts. SWIMMERSSWIMMERS Long arms and legs act as levers, allowing swimmersLong arms and legs act as levers, allowing swimmers to produce greater force in the water. Like flippers,to produce greater force in the water. Like flippers, big hands and feet propel the swimmer faster.big hands and feet propel the swimmer faster. DISTANCE RUNNERDISTANCE RUNNER Light frames and low body fat levels conserve energyLight frames and low body fat levels conserve energy because the runner carries less weight. Musclesbecause the runner carries less weight. Muscles will ideally be slow twitch (or fatigue resistant),will ideally be slow twitch (or fatigue resistant), aiding enduranceaiding endurance
- 45. DISCUSDISCUS Above average height allows a high release position, which addsAbove average height allows a high release position, which adds distance to throws. A strong, heavy body boosts the throwersdistance to throws. A strong, heavy body boosts the throwers momentum. Must be muscular in upper and lower body but canmomentum. Must be muscular in upper and lower body but can carry a little fat.carry a little fat. SPRINTERSPRINTER All over muscle and lower body fat levels give sprinters theirAll over muscle and lower body fat levels give sprinters their explosive powers. Muscles must be fast twitch, meaning theyexplosive powers. Muscles must be fast twitch, meaning they contract quickly. Height does not matter, so long as stride lengthcontract quickly. Height does not matter, so long as stride length is efficient.is efficient. NETBALLERNETBALLER For mid court players, powerful legs enable leaps to intercept highFor mid court players, powerful legs enable leaps to intercept high passes and sprint speed to chase the ball. End court players arepasses and sprint speed to chase the ball. End court players are usually in the top 10 percent, with long arms for shooting andusually in the top 10 percent, with long arms for shooting and defending.defending. WEIGHT LIFTERWEIGHT LIFTER Short legs lower the weight lifters centre of gravity (CoG), improvingShort legs lower the weight lifters centre of gravity (CoG), improving stability. Short arms reduce the arc through which the weightstability. Short arms reduce the arc through which the weight must be lifted. A stocky, thick set adds power, but also stabilisesmust be lifted. A stocky, thick set adds power, but also stabilises and protects the joints.and protects the joints. GYMNASTGYMNAST Long limbs in relation to the body boost the gymnasts power-to-ratio.Long limbs in relation to the body boost the gymnasts power-to-ratio. Low body fat results in better muscle definition. Broad shouldersLow body fat results in better muscle definition. Broad shoulders and narrow hips promote maximum upper body strength. Smalland narrow hips promote maximum upper body strength. Small compact gymnasts use less energy in difficult training regimescompact gymnasts use less energy in difficult training regimes
- 46. BODY TYPES – SOMATOTYPEBODY TYPES – SOMATOTYPE There are three basic body types:There are three basic body types: 1. Endomorph:1. Endomorph: Oval-shaped person with concentration ofOval-shaped person with concentration of weight in the centre of the body, abdominalweight in the centre of the body, abdominal sag, flabby limbs and poorly tonedsag, flabby limbs and poorly toned muscles.muscles. Prone to being fat because of an excellentProne to being fat because of an excellent food absorption system.food absorption system.
- 47. 2. Mesomorph:2. Mesomorph: Big-chested person endowed with denseBig-chested person endowed with dense muscle and huge, strong bones.muscle and huge, strong bones. Although the body mass is wellAlthough the body mass is well proportioned, this body type has aproportioned, this body type has a tendency to accumulate adipose tissue intendency to accumulate adipose tissue in later adult years, particularly if inactive.later adult years, particularly if inactive. Prone to muscularityProne to muscularity..
- 48. 3. Ectomorph:3. Ectomorph: Extreme thinness, protruding neck, sunkenExtreme thinness, protruding neck, sunken chest, round shoulders, undersizedchest, round shoulders, undersized musculature and a fragile skeletalmusculature and a fragile skeletal system.system. Thin because of a poor food assimilationThin because of a poor food assimilation systemsystem
- 49. Everyone has some part ofEveryone has some part of each of the three types, buteach of the three types, but those high in endomorphicthose high in endomorphic characteristics must regulatecharacteristics must regulate caloric intake to avoidcaloric intake to avoid overweight.overweight.
- 50. ACTIVITYACTIVITY Going through the magazines find 3Going through the magazines find 3 pictures for eachpictures for each SomatotypeSomatotype andand past them on the paper given to you.past them on the paper given to you. Explain the characteristics you see forExplain the characteristics you see for each one as to why they fit in thateach one as to why they fit in that Somatotype.Somatotype. Use arrows to point to theseUse arrows to point to these characteristics on the pictures tocharacteristics on the pictures to make it clearer.make it clearer.
- 51. EVOLUTIONEVOLUTION MANMAN evolved from quadrupedal toevolved from quadrupedal to bipedal through adaptations ofbipedal through adaptations of the musculoskeletal systemthe musculoskeletal system over millions of years.over millions of years. FOUR LEGGED ANIMALSFOUR LEGGED ANIMALS havehave a skeletal system similar ina skeletal system similar in shape to a bridge. They haveshape to a bridge. They have an arched backbone to supportan arched backbone to support internal structures.internal structures.
- 52. THROUGH EVOLUTION: Changes to an upright postureTHROUGH EVOLUTION: Changes to an upright posture 1.1. VertebraeVertebrae adapted to the vertical weight bearingadapted to the vertical weight bearing stress, thus the vertebral arch evolved to an “S”stress, thus the vertebral arch evolved to an “S” shape.shape. 2.2. There became moreThere became more burden on the pelvisburden on the pelvis, thus the, thus the shape of the pelvis changed to be able to supportshape of the pelvis changed to be able to support the weight of the upper body.the weight of the upper body. 3.3. TheThe footfoot changed shape to permit bending andchanged shape to permit bending and twisting movements of the spine. The feet weretwisting movements of the spine. The feet were required more for weight bearing and less forrequired more for weight bearing and less for grasping and so the toes shortened. The arch ofgrasping and so the toes shortened. The arch of the foot had to bear more stress under the bodythe foot had to bear more stress under the body weight.weight. 4.4. The individual vertebrae changed shape to permitThe individual vertebrae changed shape to permit bending and twisting movements of the spine. Thisbending and twisting movements of the spine. This change in shape has actually weakened thechange in shape has actually weakened the vertebral column, particularly in the lumbar regionvertebral column, particularly in the lumbar region where herniated discs are common due to stress.where herniated discs are common due to stress.
- 53. POSTUREPOSTURE STATIC AND DYNAMIC POSTURESTATIC AND DYNAMIC POSTURE STATICSTATIC posture is when a person is in equilibrium orposture is when a person is in equilibrium or motionless.motionless. DYNAMICDYNAMIC posture is when an individual is in motion.posture is when an individual is in motion. GOOD POSTURE:GOOD POSTURE: Definition:Definition: A state of muscular and skeletal balance,A state of muscular and skeletal balance, which protects the supporting structures of the bodywhich protects the supporting structures of the body against progressive deformity or injury.against progressive deformity or injury. Advantages:Advantages: Mechanically functional and economicalMechanically functional and economical
- 54. WHY GOOD POSTURE?WHY GOOD POSTURE? Allows internal organs to be supported well.Allows internal organs to be supported well. Gives impression of enthusiasm, confidence and initiativeGives impression of enthusiasm, confidence and initiative.. CENTRE OF GRAVITYCENTRE OF GRAVITY The center of gravity is the point through which gravity acts.The center of gravity is the point through which gravity acts. It passes between the hips and forward of the sacrum.It passes between the hips and forward of the sacrum. WE MAINTAIN BALANCE BY?WE MAINTAIN BALANCE BY? Eyes – visual cuesEyes – visual cues Middle Ear – equilibriumMiddle Ear – equilibrium Receptors in our joints and musclesReceptors in our joints and muscles WHEN ARE WE MOST STABLE?WHEN ARE WE MOST STABLE? We are most stable in the sitting position because we have aWe are most stable in the sitting position because we have a wide base of support and a lowered Centre of gravitywide base of support and a lowered Centre of gravity We are least stable whilst standing because we have a smallWe are least stable whilst standing because we have a small base of support and a raised Centre of gravity.base of support and a raised Centre of gravity.
- 55. GRAVITYGRAVITY pulls on bones and joints. Therefore:pulls on bones and joints. Therefore: With a well aligned body, the bones take pressureWith a well aligned body, the bones take pressure of resisting gravity and muscles maintain correctof resisting gravity and muscles maintain correct alignment.alignment. With a poorly aligned body, the muscles andWith a poorly aligned body, the muscles and ligaments bear the strain of the effects of gravity.ligaments bear the strain of the effects of gravity. The muscles are unbalanced and strained whichThe muscles are unbalanced and strained which leads to postural deviations.leads to postural deviations. STRUCTURESTRUCTURE is related tois related to FUNCTION:FUNCTION: Functional deviations due to soft tissue response toFunctional deviations due to soft tissue response to exercise can become structural deviations, whichexercise can become structural deviations, which result in permanent changes in bone shape. Thisresult in permanent changes in bone shape. This requires surgery or some other medical interventionrequires surgery or some other medical intervention (e.g. leg braces) to correct.(e.g. leg braces) to correct.
- 56. POOR POSTUREPOOR POSTURE DefinitionDefinition The faulty relationship of the variousThe faulty relationship of the various segments of the body, producingsegments of the body, producing increased stress on the supportingincreased stress on the supporting structures.structures. Poor posture makes it more difficult toPoor posture makes it more difficult to maintain efficient balance over themaintain efficient balance over the base of support and causes sagging,base of support and causes sagging, which will permanently stretchwhich will permanently stretch muscle groups.muscle groups.
- 57. WHAT CAUSES POOR POSTURE?WHAT CAUSES POOR POSTURE? Poor standing, sitting, walkingPoor standing, sitting, walking Poor nutrition (e.g. rickets causes bowPoor nutrition (e.g. rickets causes bow legs)legs) Lack of exercise (muscle atrophy – waste)Lack of exercise (muscle atrophy – waste) Fatigue/sicknessFatigue/sickness Clothing – high heeled shoes causeClothing – high heeled shoes cause lordosislordosis Poorly designed furniture – shape of chairsPoorly designed furniture – shape of chairs to promote good sitting postureto promote good sitting posture Specific sports – gymnastics (lordosis);Specific sports – gymnastics (lordosis); breastroke (round shoulders)breastroke (round shoulders) Emotional/Self esteem Factors – hunchEmotional/Self esteem Factors – hunch shouldersshoulders
- 58. SYMPTOMSSYMPTOMS Symptoms of poor posture can include:Symptoms of poor posture can include: Rounded shouldersRounded shoulders PotbellyPotbelly Bent knees when standing or walkingBent knees when standing or walking Head that either leans forward or backwardHead that either leans forward or backward Back painBack pain Body aches and painsBody aches and pains Muscle fatigueMuscle fatigue Headache.Headache.
- 59. Postural MechanismsPostural Mechanisms Poor posture interferes with a number of the body's posturalPoor posture interferes with a number of the body's postural mechanisms, including:mechanisms, including: Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibresSlow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres Muscle strength and lengthMuscle strength and length Nervous system feedback on the body's position in space.Nervous system feedback on the body's position in space. Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibresSlow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres Skeletal muscle is made up of two types of muscle fibre - slow-twitchSkeletal muscle is made up of two types of muscle fibre - slow-twitch and fast-twitch. Generally, slow-twitch muscle fibres are found inand fast-twitch. Generally, slow-twitch muscle fibres are found in the deeper muscle layers. They help us to maintain posturethe deeper muscle layers. They help us to maintain posture without too much effort, and contribute to balance by 'sensing'without too much effort, and contribute to balance by 'sensing' our position and relaying this information to the brain. Fast-twitchour position and relaying this information to the brain. Fast-twitch muscle fibres are used for movement and activity.muscle fibres are used for movement and activity. Slow-twitch fibres burn energy slowly and can keep working for aSlow-twitch fibres burn energy slowly and can keep working for a long time without tiring. However, fast-twitch fibres quickly run outlong time without tiring. However, fast-twitch fibres quickly run out of steam. Poor posture causes muscle fatigue because it calls onof steam. Poor posture causes muscle fatigue because it calls on the fast-twitch fibres instead of slow-twitch fibres to maintain thethe fast-twitch fibres instead of slow-twitch fibres to maintain the body's position.body's position.
- 60. Muscle strength and lengthMuscle strength and length Over time, poor posture that demandsOver time, poor posture that demands support from fast-twitch fibressupport from fast-twitch fibres causes the deeper supportingcauses the deeper supporting muscles to waste away from lack ofmuscles to waste away from lack of use. Weak, unused muscles tend touse. Weak, unused muscles tend to tighten, and this shortening oftighten, and this shortening of muscle length can compact themuscle length can compact the bones of the spine (vertebrae) andbones of the spine (vertebrae) and worsen posture.worsen posture.
- 61. Nervous system feedback on the body's position inNervous system feedback on the body's position in spacespace The deeper layers of muscle are concerned with 'sensing' ourThe deeper layers of muscle are concerned with 'sensing' our position in space and relaying this information to theposition in space and relaying this information to the brain. If this function is taken over by muscles that mainlybrain. If this function is taken over by muscles that mainly contain fast-twitch fibres, the brain gets an incompletecontain fast-twitch fibres, the brain gets an incomplete picture. The brain assumes that the body needs to bepicture. The brain assumes that the body needs to be propped up to counteract the effects of gravity, so itpropped up to counteract the effects of gravity, so it triggers further muscle contraction. This adds to thetriggers further muscle contraction. This adds to the general fatigue and pain felt by the person with poorgeneral fatigue and pain felt by the person with poor posture.posture. Listen to your bodyListen to your body Good posture feels effortless, which is why traditional 'goodGood posture feels effortless, which is why traditional 'good posture' suggestions like throwing your shoulders backposture' suggestions like throwing your shoulders back and sticking out your chest may feel uncomfortable too.and sticking out your chest may feel uncomfortable too. Instead, listen to your body. Make minor adjustmentsInstead, listen to your body. Make minor adjustments while standing and sitting. Which position feels the easiestwhile standing and sitting. Which position feels the easiest and most graceful? In most cases, concentrating on otherand most graceful? In most cases, concentrating on other tasks (such as work) can direct attention away from anytasks (such as work) can direct attention away from any feelings of physical discomfort. Get into the habit offeelings of physical discomfort. Get into the habit of regularly tuning in to your body. If you feel muscle tensionregularly tuning in to your body. If you feel muscle tension or fatigue, move into another position.or fatigue, move into another position.
- 62. POSTURE AND SOMATOTYPEPOSTURE AND SOMATOTYPE ECTOMORPHS:ECTOMORPHS: have more postural deformities than otherhave more postural deformities than other groups and are related to the vertebral column e.g. poked head,groups and are related to the vertebral column e.g. poked head, round shoulders, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis.round shoulders, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis. ENDOMORPHS:ENDOMORPHS: suffer mainly from leg deformities, due to thesuffer mainly from leg deformities, due to the added burden of extra weight e.g. knock knees, flat feet, duckadded burden of extra weight e.g. knock knees, flat feet, duck feetfeet MESOMORPHS:MESOMORPHS: tend to be free from postural defects.tend to be free from postural defects.
Editor's Notes
- #3: Physical Activity Defined as participation in some sort of bodily exercise, either on a recreational or occupational basis. Play “An enjoyable experience derived from behaviour which is self-initiated, tolerant of abilities, and develops rules spontaneously. It does not have a predetermined ending with a victor or reward.” (Singer, 1975) Sport Sport is a human activity that involves “specific organisational and historical background of rules which define the object and limit the pattern of human behaviour; it involves competition or challenge and a definite outcome primarily determined by physical skill.” (Singer, 1975) Healthvs. Physical Fitness Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and emotional wellbeing. Health can be defined as TOTAL FITNESS. Social WellbeingPhysical Wellbeing