A Brief History Of USA

A BRIEF HISTORY OF USA
BY BIKRANT ROY
PART ONE COLONIAL AMERICA
THE FIRST COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA
The first Europeans to establish colonies in North America were the
Spanish. In 1526 a Spaniard called Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon attempted to
found a colony in Carolina. (He also brought the first black slaves to North
America). However the attempt failed. Many Spaniards died of disease and
the survivors abandoned the colony.
In 1565 Pedro Menendez de Aviles founded a settlement at St Augustine,
Florida, the first permanent European settlement in what is now the USA.
The first English attempt to colonize North America was made by a man
named Sir Humphrey Gilbert. In 1578 Queen Elizabeth granted him
permission to establish a colony there. In 1583 Gilbert sailed with a small
fleet of ships to Newfoundland. However Gilbert soon abandoned the
venture. Gilbert was lost on the voyage home.
However his half-brother, Walter Raleigh made another attempt to found a
colony. In 1584 he sent two ships to explore the coast. They found what
they thought was a suitable place for a colony. In January 1585 Queen
Elizabeth the 'Virgin Queen' allowed him to call the place Virginia, after her.
In April 1585 an expedition was sent led by Richard Grenville. They arrived
in July 1585. Grenville left men on Roanoke Island then left for England to
obtain more men and supplies. However while he was gone the colonists
ran very short of supplies. In 1586 the colonists abandoned Virginia and
returned to England.
In 1587 another attempt to found a colony was made by a man named
John White. He led an expedition of men, women and children to Virginia.
However White returned to England to seek more support for the colony.
Because of a war between England and Spain he was unable to return to
Virginia until 1590. When he did he found the colony deserted. The fate of
the colonists is unknown.
JAMESTOWN AND VIRGINIA

The first attempts to found a colony in North America were made by
gentlemen adventurers. Success came only when a group of men joined
together and pooled their resources to found a colony. The Virginia
Company was founded in 1606. They sent two expeditions to North
America. Raleigh Gilbert (Sir Humphrey Gilbert's son) led one of them.
They landed in Maine but soon gave up. They returned to England in 1609.
The second expedition founded Jamestown on 14 May 1607.
More settlers arrived in 1609. However shortage of food, disease and
conflict with the natives caused many deaths among the colonists. In 1610
the survivors were on the verge of leaving. They were dissuaded from
doing so only when more ships from England arrived. In 1611 Sir Thomas
Dale became the Governor of the colony. He introduced strict discipline
with a code of laws called 'Laws, Divine, Moral and Martial'. Penalties for
disobedience were severe.
In 1612 a man named John Rolfe began growing tobacco. In 1614 the first
Virginian tobacco was sold in England. Exports of tobacco soon became
the mainstay of the Virginian economy.
Gradually the colony expanded. In 1618 the Company offered 50 acres of
land to anyone who could pay for the cost of their voyage across the
Atlantic. If they could not pay they could become indentured servants.
When they arrived they were not free. They had to work for the company
for several years to pay back the cost of their passage. In 1619 19 black
indentured servants arrived in Virginia.
Also in 1619 the first representative government in North America was
created when the House of Burgesses met.
In 1624 the Virginia Company was dissolved and the Crown took over the
colony. By 1660 the population of Virginia was 27,000. By 1710 it had risen
to 78,000. However in 1699 the seat of government of Virginia was moved
from Jamestown to Middle Plantation (Williamsburg). Afterwards
Jamestown went into decline.
THE PILGRIM FATHERS AND NEW ENGLAND
Another English colony was founded 1620 by a group of people fleeing
religious persecution. They disagreed with the teachings of the Church of
England and wished to separate themselves from it not to reform it.
However they did not actually call themselves 'pilgrims'. The colonists set
out in a ship called the Mayflower and they arrived on 11 December 1620.
Half of the colonists did not survive the first year in North America. The

Natives who taught them how to grow crops saved the survivors. Another
colony was founded at Salem in 1628.
The Massachusetts Bay Company was formed in 1629. From 1630 large
numbers of settlers were transported to New England and its population
swelled. Furthermore English colonists spread over the coast of North
America. In 1634 people from Massachusetts founded the town of
Wethersfield in Connecticut.
In 1636 a group of people left the Massachusetts Bay colony and settled on
Rhode Island. The first settlement was at Providence.
Meanwhile a fishing settlement was founded in New Hampshire in 1623. In
1629 the area between the Merrimack River and the Piscataqua River was
granted to a man named Mason. It was named New Hampshire.
Portsmouth, New Hampshire was founded in 1630. Officially New
Hampshire was part of Massachusetts until 1679.
Unlike the southern states, which were overwhelmingly agricultural New
England developed a partly mercantile economy. Fishing was an important
industry. Exports of timber and barrels were also important. There was also
a ship building industry in New England.
Life in 17th Century New England
The Europeans introduced many diseases to which the natives had little or
no resistance. As a result many natives died and their number declined
sharply. As the British colonies grew they inevitably came into conflict with
the natives. The Pequot War was fought in 1637-1638 and it ended in the
destruction of the Pequot tribe. Another desperate struggle took place in
1675-1676. the colonists heavy-handed treatment of the natives led to King
Philip's War. King Philip was actually a native called Metacom and the war
ended with his death. Although great damage was done on both sides the
defeat of the natives effectively meant that the colonists now had mastery
of New England.
In 1692 twenty people died as a result of the Salem Witch Trials
NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY
In 1624 the Dutch West India Company founded a colony called New
Netherland. The first settlement was at Fort Orange (Albany). In 1638
Swedes formed a colony at Fort Christina (Wilmington). The Dutch
captured this colony in 1655 and made it part of New Netherland. The
British captured New Netherland in 1664 and renamed it New York in honor

of the king's brother the Duke of York. King Charles II granted the colony to
his brother. He in turn granted the land between the Delaware and the
Hudson to two men, Lord John Berkeley (1607-1678) and Sir George
Carteret (1615-1680). Carteret came from the island of Jersey in the
English Channel and he named the area New Jersey after his home. In
1676 the colony was divided into East and West Jersey. Carteret took East
Jersey. In 1681 his widow sold it to William Penn and 11 other Quakers.
Penn hoped to turn this new colony into a haven of religious tolerance for
Quakers and others. In 1682 the area now called Delaware was ceded to
William Penn. In 1704 it was allowed its own assembly. However until the
revolution Delaware and Pennsylvania shared a governor. Meanwhile East
and West Jersey were reunited in 1702.
MARYLAND
Maryland was founded as a haven for Catholics (though by no means all
the early colonists were Catholic, some were Protestant). A man named
Cecil Calvert was granted territory north of the Potomac River. His brother
Leonard led 200 settlers there to found a colony in 1634. It was named
Maryland after the king's wife, Henrietta Maria. By 1640 there were about
500 people in Maryland. It soon became another tobacco growing colony.
CAROLINA AND GEORGIA
The Carolinas were settled after 1663 when Charles II granted them to 8
proprietors. Settlers came from islands in the Caribbean as well as from
Virginia and New England. Charleston was founded in 1670. Carolina soon
became a slave state. From the end of the 17th century many African
slaves were transported to work on the plantations. In the early 18th
century the African slave population in North America increased rapidly. In
1701 Carolina was divided into North and South Carolina.
Georgia was founded in 1732 when George II gave it a charter. It was
named after him. The first settlement in Georgia was Savannah, which was
founded in 1733.
THE GREAT AWAKENING
In the early 18th century there was a great religious revival in the North
American colonies. (Later it was given the name 'The Great Awakening').
Leading figures in the revival were William Tennent 1673-1745, a Scottish-
Presbyterian preacher, Jonathan Edwards 1703-1758. The English
preacher George Whitefield 1714-1770 also visited the colonies and won
many converts.

CONFLICT WITH BRITAIN
As the North American colonies grew tension with Britain was inevitable.
The British felt that the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother
country and this attitude was bound to cause resentment. As early as 1651
the British Parliament passed a navigation act. It stated that any goods
grown or made outside Europe must be transported to England in English
ships. Other Navigation Acts followed it. The 1660 Navigation Act stated
that certain goods (cotton, indigo, sugar and tobacco) could only be
exported from the colonies to England or to other colonies. It was followed
by acts in 1670 and 1673. However the British made little attempt to
enforce these acts and they were widely ignored by the colonists. (After
1763 the British tried to enforce them more rigorously, causing great
resentment among the colonists).
In the early 18th century the population of the North American colonies
grew rapidly. It was probably about 300,000 at the end of the 17th century
but by 1760 it was over 1 million. By 1780 it had doubled. In the early 18th
century the population was boosted by immigrants from Northern Ireland
(most of them descended from Scottish Presbyterians). There were also
many immigrants from Scotland itself. Also in the early 18th century there
were many German immigrants. Land was cheap in North America and it
attracted many people hoping for a better life.
THE GREAT PROCLAMATION
However relations between the colonists and the mother country turned
sour after 1763. The British had just finished fighting the Seven Years War
against France. They had won Canada but the war was very expensive.
The British were keen to prevent any wars with the Native Americans,
which might prove expensive. In 1763 a royal proclamation known as the
Great Proclamation sought to ban any further westward expansion. It
forbade people to settle in 'any lands beyond the heads or sources of any
of the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean from the West or Northwest'.
This proclamation was ignored by the colonists but it also caused great
resentment. The colonists objected to being told by the British government
that they could not expand westwards.
NO TAXATION WITHOUT RESPRESENTATION
Furthermore in 1763 Americans paid few taxes, certainly less than the
British. The British felt that the Americans should pay a greater contribution
towards the cost of their defense. In 1764 the British Prime Minister,
George Grenville, passed the Sugar Act. (So called because it affected
imports of molasses from the West Indies. Its proper name was the

American Revenue Act.) The act actually reduced duty on molasses but
steps were taken to make sure it was collected! (Smuggling was
widespread). The Sugar Act infuriated the Americans and they were
alienated further by the Currency Act of 1764. The colonies were printing
their own money because of a shortage of currency but the act banned the
issue of paper money in the American colonies (and so hindered trade).
However most offence was caused by the Stamp Act of 1765, which
imposed duty on legal documents, newspapers and playing cards. It was
not just that the Americans hated paying the tax but that they felt a
constitutional issue was involved. They believed that since they were not
represented in the British parliament it had no right to impose taxes on
them. In the immortal phrase 'no taxation without representation'. The
Stamp Act soon proved to be unenforceable. Colonial assemblies
denounced it and in October 1765 a number of colonies sent delegates to a
'Stamp act Congress' to organize resistance. Imports of British goods were
boycotted and debts to British merchants were suspended. Rioters
attacked tax collectors and their property. Eventually in March 1766 the
British were forced to repeal the Stamp Act. However at the same time they
passed the Declaratory Act, which said that parliament was sovereign over
all American colonies. This stupid act simply annoyed the colonists.
Moreover the British had learned nothing. In 1767 the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, Charles Townshend, imposed duties on lead, glass, paint, oil
and tea. Once again the colonists boycotted imports of British goods and
once again the British government was forced to back down. By March
1770 all duties except those on tea were removed.
THE BOSTON MASSACRE AND THE BOSTON TEA PARTY
However American public opinion was galvanized by the 'Boston massacre'
of March 1770. A group of people in Boston threw snowballs at British
soldiers. The soldiers opened fire, killing 5 people and wounding 6 of them.
Worse all 6 of the 8 soldiers put on trial for the deaths were acquitted. Two
were found guilty of manslaughter and branded on the thumbs. The British
failure to execute anybody for the massacre outraged American opinion.
Then in 1773 the British East India Company sent tea to the American
colonies to sell. Three ships were sent to Boston with 298 chests of tea.
However Boston was a center of resistance to the British. On 16 December
1773 men dressed as Indians boarded the ships and threw the tea into the
sea.
The British Prime Minister, Lord North, behaved very unwisely. In 1774 a
series of laws were passed called the Coercive or Intolerable Acts. The port

of Boston was closed and the seat of government was moved to Salem.
The charter of Massachusetts was changed to give the royal governor
more power.
The Americans were also annoyed by the Quebec Act of 1774. This was an
attempt by the British parliament to make the French Catholics loyal to the
British Crown. The Act extended the boundaries of Quebec southward and
westward. The Americans feared the king intended to settle loyal French
speaking Catholics in the West to increase his own power in the region.
THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Finally in September 1774 a Continental Congress met to decide policy.
They demanded the repeal of the Coercive Acts and of the Quebec Act.
The Congress also denounced British interference in American affairs and
asserted the right of colonial assemblies to pass laws and raise taxes as
they saw fit.
In September 1774 a man named Joseph Galloway put forward a
compromise plan. The king would be allowed to appoint president-general
and the colonial assemblies would elect a grand council. However the
Congress rejected his plan.
Furthermore the British refused to compromise with the Americans. On 5
February 1775 they declared that Massachusetts was in a state of
rebellion. British troops were given a free hand to deal with it.
However the American colonies had militias made up of civilians and they
resisted the British. Fighting began on 19 April 1775 when British soldiers
attempted to seize a colonial arms dump near Concord. The militia were
warned that the British were coming. At Lexington the British were met by
the militia. The British opened fire killing 8 Americans. Meanwhile the
Americans had removed the weapons. The British advanced to Concord
and fired upon the militia but then withdrew. They retreated back to Boston
with the Americans firing at them along the way. During the march the
British lost 73 dead and 200 wounded or missing. The American Revolution
had begun.
From April 1775 to March 1776 the British army was besieged in Boston.
They could be supplied by sea by the British navy. Nevertheless they soon
ran short of supplies. On May 25 the British were reinforced but they were
unable to break out. Eventually they were evacuated by sea to Canada.
The Continental Congress met again in May 1775 and agreed to raise an
army. George Washington was made its commander in chief. Congress

hoped they could force the British to negotiate but George III refused to
compromise. Instead in August 1775 he declared that all the American
colonies were in a state of rebellion.
Meanwhile rule by royal governor broke down and the people demanded
government without royal interference. In May 1776 Congress decided that
royal government should cease and government should be 'under the
authority of the people'. Subsequently the colonies drew up state
constitutions to replace their charters.
Meanwhile the fire was stoked by Tom Paine (1737-1809). In 1776 he
published a pamphlet called Common Sense, which rejected all talk of
negotiation with the British and demanded complete independence.
Common Sense became a best seller.
On 7 June 1776 Richard Henry Lee of the Virginia Assembly presented
Congress with resolutions declaring the independence of the colonies,
calling for a confederation and expressed the need to find foreign allies for
a war against Britain. On 11 June Congress appointed a committee to write
a declaration of independence. It was signed on 4 July 1776.
PART TWO THE EARLY USA
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR
At first sight the British had many advantages. They greatly outnumbered
the Americans and had much greater resources. However they were
handicapped by long lines of communication. (In those days it took a sailing
ship 6 to 8 weeks to cross the Atlantic). The British won the battle of Long
Island in August 1776 and in September 1776 they captured New York.
Washington was forced to retreat. However Washington won victories at
Trenton in December 1776 and at Princeton in January 1777. The
Americans were defeated at Brandywine in September 1777 but they won
a decisive victory at Saratoga in October. A British force led by Burgoyne
marched south from Canada but was surrounded and forced to surrender.
Saratoga convinced the French that the Americans might win the war. As a
result they declared war on Britain, their traditional enemy in 1778. French
naval activity in the Atlantic made it even harder for the British to supply
their forces in America. Spain declared war on Britain in 1779 and the
Dutch declared war in 1780. The Spanish and Dutch tied down British
forces in Europe.
Furthermore the Americans won victories at Kings Mountain in October
1780 and at Cowpens in January 1781. Cornwallis, the British Commander,

unwisely concentrated his forces on the coast at Yorktown, Virginia.
However the French navy blockaded him while the Americans besieged
him from the land. The British were forced to surrender. Yorktown was a
catastrophic defeat for the British and ended any hope of them ending the
war. Nevertheless it continued for 2 more years before the Treaty of Paris
ended it in September 1783.
Life in 18th Century Colonial America
THE FOUNDATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
In 1777 Articles of Confederation were drawn up which joined the states
into a loose federation. However the arrangement proved unsatisfactory. In
1787 each state sent delegates to a convention in Philadelphia to remedy
this. Between May and September 1787 they wrote a new constitution. The
first Congress met in 1789 and George Washington became the first
President. In 1791 ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights were
ratified.
In the late 18th century and the early 19th century the population of the
USA grew rapidly. Immigrants from Europe poured into the country
including many from Germany. Meanwhile the USA expanded westward. In
1791 Vermont was admitted to the union as the 14th state. Kentucky
became the 15th state in 1792 and Tennessee the 16th in 1796. In 1803
Ohio became the 17th state.
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
Also in 1803 American territory was greatly increased by the Louisiana
purchase. France claimed a vast amount of land in central North America
around the Missouri River and the Arkansas River. In 1803 Napoleon
agreed to sell the lot for $15 million. Buying the French land meant there
was now no bar to the USA spreading across the continent to the Pacific
Ocean. Louisiana became the 18th state of the union in 1812.
THE WAR OF 1812
Meanwhile the Americans and British fought another war. This war came
about partly because, after 1807, the British navy blockaded European
ports during the war with Napoleon and they prevented American ships
from delivering their cargoes. They also boarded American ships looking
for deserters. Some of the men they arrested were not deserters at all.
Finally some Americans wished to invade Canadian territory. War was
declared on 18 June 1812. The senators voted 19 to 13 for war. However
not all Americans actively supported the war. Some were, at best,

lukewarm in their support. This dissension weakened the American war
effort. On the other hand American sailors were all volunteers while many
sailors in the British navy were forced to join by press gangs. Volunteers
were, generally, better than pressed men, one reason why America did well
in naval battles.
However an American attempt to invade Canada failed. However the
American navy had more success. They won a victory on Lake Erie in
September 1813. However Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 allowing the
British to send more forces to North America. In August 1814 a British
expedition landed and captured Washington. They withdrew after a few
weeks. A peace treaty was signed at the end of 1814. However a major
battle was fought after it was signed. The British were severely defeated at
the Battle of New Orleans on 8 January 1815.
THE GROWTH OF THE USA
In 1804 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark set out to explore what is now
the northwest United States. In 1805 they followed the Missouri River to its
headwaters then crossed the Rocky Mountains and reached the Pacific.
They returned in 1806.
By 1810 the population of the USA was over 7.2 million and it continued to
grow rapidly. By 1820 it was over 9.6 million and by 1840 over 17 million.
More and more states were added to union. Indiana was admitted in 1816.
Mississippi followed in 1817. Illinois became a state in 1818 and Alabama
in 1819. Missouri became a state in 1821. It was followed by Arkansas in
1836 and Michigan in 1837.
The American economy also grew rapidly. In the south cotton expanded
rapidly after Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793. It also grew
because Britain was industrializing. There was a huge cotton industry in
Britain in the early 19th century, which devoured cotton from America. In
the North trade and commerce grew rapidly. By 1860 more than 60% of the
world's cotton was grown in the USA.
In the decades after the war of 1812 the Northern States began to
industrialize. Coal mining and manufacturing industries boomed.
In 1817 the New York legislature authorized a canal from the Hudson River
to Lake Erie. The canal was completed in 1825 and it cut the cost of
transporting freight. Furthermore the first railroad was built in the USA was
built in 1828.

After 1814 there was fighting between Seminole Indians from Florida and
settlers from Georgia. The Seminoles also allowed runaway slaves to live
among them, which annoyed the Americans. Eventually, in 1818 Andrew
Jackson led a force into Florida (although it was Spanish territory). This
was the first Seminole War. Spain ceded Florida to the USA in 1821.
Florida became a US state in 1845.
TEXAS JOINS THE USA
In the 1820s the Mexican government welcomed Americans who wished to
settle in its thinly populated territory of Texas. However in the American
settlers soon quarreled with their Mexican masters and in 1835 they began
a rebellion. On 1 March 1836 a convention met and on 2 March 1836 they
signed a Texas Declaration of Independence. Meanwhile a force of
Mexicans under Santa Anna besieged about 189 men in the fortress at
Alamo. All the defenders were eventually killed and the Alamo passed into
legend. Apart from Americans Scots fought at the Alamo, so did Irishmen
and Englishmen. There was also a Welshman and a Dane.
However on 21 April 1836 Texan troops under Sam Houston routed the
Mexican army under Santa Anna at the battle of San Jacinto. Texas
became independent and Sam Houston became its first president. In 1845
the USA annexed Texas and it became the 28th US state. However the
Mexicans never accepted the independence of Texas and they were
infuriated when the Americans annexed the territory. The US annexation of
Texas led directly to war with Mexico.
THE MEXICAN WAR
In 1845, fearing the Mexicans would invade Texas, President Polk sent
troops under Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans ambushed
an American patrol north of the river. However the Americans defeated the
Mexicans at the battles of Palo Alto on 8 May 1846 and Reseca de la
Palma on 9 May 1846. On 13 May 1846 Congress declared war on Mexico.
On 21 September Taylor attacked Monterrey. An armistice was agreed and
the Mexican troops withdrew. Santa Anna counterattacked on 22 February
1847 but he was defeated.
Then General Scott captured Veracruz on 28 March 1847. He then
marched on Mexico City and captured it in mid-September 1847. The
Mexican War was ended by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in February
1848. Mexico ceded New Mexico and California to the USA.
THE PACIFIC COAST OF THE USA

The population of California boomed when a gold rush occurred. Gold was
discovered at Sutters Mill on 24 January 1848. In the fall of 1848
newspapers in the East published the news that gold could be found in
California and a gold rush began. By early 1849 large numbers of men set
out for California hoping to make their fortune. By 1852 the population of
California reached 250,000. The huge wave of migrants created a huge
demand for industries products and the Californian economy prospered.
California was admitted to the union as a state in 1850.
Meanwhile, in the 1840s and 1850s, many settlers traveled along the
Oregon Trail. The trail was used by trappers from the early 19th century but
the first wagon train traveled along it in 1842. It was followed by many
others but railroads eventually made the trail obsolete. Oregon was
admitted to the union as a state in 1859.
THE INDIAN WARS
As the USA expanded westward there were many wars with the Indians. In
1790 Chief Little Turtle of the Miami defeated an American force under
Josiah Harmar. The next year the Americans were defeated again.
However in 1794 American troops decisively defeated the natives at the
Battle of Fallen Timbers. By the treaty of Greenville, 1795, the natives were
forced to cede most of Ohio to the Americans.
During the war of 1812 some natives sided with the British. The Creeks
won a battle against the Americans at Fort Sims in 1812. However troops
led by Andrew Jackson defeated the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in 1814.
The Treaty of Fort Jackson forced the Creeks to cede more than half their
land to the Americans. (It later became the state of Alabama).
Andrew Jackson later became President and in 1830 he signed the Indian
Removal Bill which forced Indians east of the Mississippi River to move to
Oklahoma.
The Choctaws were forced to move in 1832. They were followed by the
Creeks in 1835 and the Chickasaw in 1837. The Cherokee's were forced to
move in 1838-39. (So many of them died on the trail it was called the 'Trail
of Tears'). However one tribe, the Seminoles of Florida, resisted
deportation. In the years 1835-1842 they fought a guerrilla war against the
Americans. This was the Second Seminole War. However in 1837 their
leader, Osceola, was captured. Most of the Seminoles eventually
surrendered and were forced to move to Oklahoma but several hundred
escaped and fought another war in 1855-1858. This was the Third
Seminole War.

In the 1850s the USA also fought wars with the natives of the Northwest.
The natives were defeated in the Rogue River War of 1855-56 and the
Yakima War of 1855-58. Afterwards they were forced onto reservations.
THE USA IN THE MID-19TH CENTURY
The USA continued to grow rapidly and by 1860 its population was 31
million. New states were added. Iowa was added to the union in 1846.
Wisconsin followed in 1848 and Kansas was admitted in 1861.
However the rapidly growing nation was torn apart by the issue of slavery.
When the constitution was written in 1787 many people hoped that slavery
would die out of its own accord. However Eli Whitney's invention of the
cotton gin in 1793 gave slavery a new importance in the southern states. In
the northern states slavery was gradually abolished and the USA became
divided into 'free states' and 'slave states'.
THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE
In 1803 the USA bought land from France. This was known as the
Mississippi purchase. In 1819 part of the territory asked to be admitted to
the union as a state in which slavery was allowed. However at that time the
USA was evenly divided between free states and slave states. Another
slave state would upset the balance. Furthermore northerners feared that
more slave states would be created in future. Representative James
Tallmade of New York proposed an amendment, which would have ended
slavery in Missouri. However it did not become law.
A row occurred between northerners who believed that Congress had the
power to ban slavery in new states and southerners who believed that new
states had the right to allow slavery if they wished. Eventually an
agreement was reached. Missouri was admitted as a slave state but at the
same time part of Massachusetts became the state of Maine so the
balance of slave and free was preserved. Furthermore a line was drawn
across the continent. States north of it were to be free, south of it they were
to be slave. However the Missouri compromise was only a temporary
solution. Gaining new territory from Mexico created new tensions. In 1846 a
man named David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot proviso, which stated that
slavery should not be allowed in any territory taken from Mexico. It was
added as an amendment to bills but was never passed by Congress.
Nevertheless the Wilmot Proviso alienated the south.
THE COMPROMISE OF 1850

Eventually a compromise was reached. The Compromise of 1850 stated
that the territories of New Mexico and Utah could decide for themselves
whether they wished to allow slavery or not when they applied to become
states. A fugitive slave law was also passed which said that slaves who ran
away to the north should be returned to their masters.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 organized the territories of Kansas and
Nebraska. It also ended the Missouri Compromise. The compromise drew
a line across the continent and banned slavery north of it. Although Kansas
and Nebraska were north of the line the Act allowed them to choose
whether to permit slavery or not when they applied to become states.
In Kansas supporters and opponents of slavery came to blows in a series
of violent incidents called 'Bleeding Kansas'.
Feeling against slavery in the north was strengthened by Harriet Beecher
Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, which was published in 1852.
In the Dred-Scott case of 1857 the southern-dominated Supreme Court
decided that slaves were not and never could be US citizens. It also
declared the 1820 Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. The case
enraged public opinion in the north.
The civil war was not caused just by the question of slavery. North and
south were also divided over tariffs. The northern states began to
industrialize in the early 19th century. By the middle of the century the north
was becoming an industrial, urban society. Northerners wanted tariffs to
protect their industries. However the south remained an agricultural society.
Its economy was based on plantations worked by slaves. Southerners
objected to tariffs because they bought goods from the north or from
Europe and tariffs made them more expensive. North and south were quite
different economically and culturally.
THE OUTBREAK OF CIVIL WAR
The civil war was finally provoked by the election of Abraham Lincoln 1809-
1865 as president. Lincoln did not believe he had the power to abolish
slavery in states where it already existed. However he firmly opposed the
expansion of slavery into territories of the USA, which were likely to
become states in future. His policy meant that in future free states would
outnumber slave ones. As a result of his election South Carolina ceded
from the union on 20 December 1860. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana and Texas followed it early in 1861. Together they
formed the Confederate States of America on 4 February 1861. Jefferson
Davis(1808-1889) became the President.

Fighting began on 12 April 1861. Fort Sumter was a unionist stronghold
under Major Robert Anderson. On 12 April the Confederate General
Beauregard ordered the unionists to evacuate the fort. The unionists
rejected his terms and that day southern artillery bombarded the fort. Fort
Sumter was forced to surrender the next day but the unionist soldiers were
allowed to retreat to the north. Afterwards both sides began arming for war.
Following Fort Sumter Arkansas ceded from the union on 6 May 1861. It
was followed by Tennessee and North Carolina.
However the south was easily outmatched by the north. In the south there
were only 5 1/2 million whites and over 3 1/2 million slaves. The north
outnumbered the south 4 to 1 in men of military age. Furthermore while the
north had begun to industrialize the south remained an agricultural society.
About 90% of manufacturing industry was in the north of 2/3 of US
railroads. Furthermore the south suffered from disunity. Since they were
firm believers in states rights the confederate states could not form a firmly
united federation.
Despite these disadvantages the south won some early victories.
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
In July 1861 General Beauregard was in charge of 22,000 confederate
troops an Manassas Junction by the Bull Run River. General McDowell
marched south with over 30,000 unionist soldiers. They attacked the
confederates on 21 July 1861. However they were held in check by troops
led by Thomas 'Stonewall' Jackson. Eventually the unionists retreated.
However in the west the unionists won a significant victory at Shiloh on 6-7
April 1862. On the first day the confederates had some success but they
were unable to drive the unionists off the field completely. Unionist
reinforcements arrived that night and on 7 April the confederates were
forced to retreat with heavy losses. In Louisiana unionists captured New
Orleans on 25 April and Baton Rouge on 12 May.
In April 1862 the Army of the Potomac, led by General McClellan began the
Peninsular Campaign. They captured Yorktown on 4 May 1862. By late
May McClellan reached the outskirts of Richmond. However in late June
1862 General Robert E. Lee attacked and fought a series of battles called
'The Seven Days'. McClellan was forced to retreat.
In August 1862 the two armies clashed at a battle known as Second Bull
Run or Second Manassas. It was a decisive southern victory and the

northern army retreated. Lee invaded the north and the two armies fought
at Antietam. Lee was forced to retreat into Virginia.
However the unionists were severely defeated at Fredericksburg on 13
December 1862. Robert E. Lee won another brilliant victory at
Chancellorsville in May 1863.
Lee invaded the north again in June 1863. The turning point of the war was
at Gettysburg in July 1863. The two armies clashed on 1-3 July. At first the
confederates had some success. Eventually, however, they were forced to
retreat with heavy losses. The south also suffered defeat at Vicksburg on
the Mississippi. General Grant laid siege to the town and captured it on 4
July 1863. From the middle of 1863 the south's fortunes gradually waned.
In November the south suffered another defeat at Chattanooga.
In May 1864 both sides suffered heavy losses at the Battle of the
Wilderness in Virginia. The unionists were unable to capture Petersburg or
Richmond for many months.
Meanwhile, after Chattanooga, General Sherman began to advance
through Georgia towards the sea. His army entered Atlanta on 3
September 1864. On 21 December 1861 Sherman's troops captured
Savannah on the coast. The confederacy was cut in half. Then, in February
1865, Sherman headed north into South Carolina. He captured Columbia
on 19 February 1865. Then he pressed on into North Carolina.
Further north Robert E. Lee faced increasing pressure from Grant's forces
in Virginia. On 2 April 1864 the confederates abandoned Petersburg and
Richmond. Finally on 9 April 1865 Lee surrendered to Grant at Appotomax
Court House. That was effectively the end of the civil war. The rest of the
confederate forces surrendered soon afterwards. Johnston surrendered to
Sherman on 18 April and the last confederate army surrendered on 26 May
1865.
However Lincoln did not live to see the end of the war. John Wilkes Booth
assassinated him on 15 April 1865. Lincoln was watching a play in Ford's
Theater when Booth shot him in the head. Andrew Johnson took his place.
THE END OF SLAVERY
At first Lincoln was reluctant to abolish slavery in the south. However he
eventually changed his mind. On 23 September 1862 he made the
Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves would be made free in any states still
in rebellion on 1 January 1863. However this only applied to areas
occupied by the unionist army after that date it did not apply to

areas already under unionist control. However the proclamation was
followed by the 13th amendment, which banned slavery. It was ratified by
December 1865.
A history of slavery
RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH
Johnson appointed provincial governors for the former confederate states.
In each of them a constitutional convention was elected to draw up a new
constitution.
However although they were forced to accept the end of slavery southern
governments drew up 'black codes' which restricted black peoples rights,
such as depriving them of the right to vote or to sit on juries. Southern
whites were completely unwilling to accept the former slaves as equals.
Johnson was unwilling to force the south to change. Congress passed the
Civil Rights Act 1866. It stated that all people born in the USA were now
citizens regardless of race, color or previous condition (i.e. if they were
former slaves). Johnson vetoed the act but congress overrode his
presidential veto.
Johnson's refusal to take firm action against the south alienated Congress.
They passed the first Reconstruction Act in 1867. (It was followed by other
acts). The southern governments were removed from power and the former
confederate states were placed under military rule again. They were forced
to allow black men the right to vote.
However the southern states were gradually re-admitted to the union and
allowed to send senators and representatives to Congress again.
In 1875 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act. By it all people regardless of
race, color or previous condition, were entitled to full and equal treatment in
'inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters and other places of
public amusement'. However in 1883 the Supreme Court decided the Act
was unconstitutional.
When Rutherford Hayes was inaugurated as President in 1877 he withdrew
troops from the south. The former confederate states were then left to go
their own way without any interference from the north. In the south white
people re-asserted their rule and black people were forced to become
subservient. Between 1890 and 1908 black people were deprived of the
right to vote in all the former confederate states.

Furthermore in 1866-1867 the Ku Klux Klan was formed to terrorize black
people. They played an important role in restoring white rule by scaring
black people into not voting.
PART THREE THE RISE OF THE USA
In the late 19th century the population of the USA grew very rapidly. In
1860 the population was 31 million. By 1900 it was almost 76 million.
Immigrants from Europe poured into the USA hoping for a better life. Many
people were lured by the Homesteader Act of 1862. Settlers were offered
160 acres of land free provided they agreed to till it for 5 years. (However
Chinese immigration into the USA was ended by the Chinese Exclusion Act
of 1882).
American industry also boomed. In the late 19th century the USA was the
fastest growing industrial nation in the world. By the end of the century it
had surpassed Britain in production of iron and steel. The American
railroad network also grew rapidly. In 1850 there were 9,000 miles of
railways. By 1900 there were 190,000 miles. The first transcontinental
railroad was built in 1869.
Meanwhile, in 1859, Edwin Drake (1819-1899) struck oil in Pennsylvania.
Soon there was a flourishing oil industry in Pennsylvania. The first oil
pipeline was built in 1865.
In 1874 Levi Strauss began making riveted jeans.
An increasing number of Americans lived in cities. By 1900 almost 1/3 of
them did. by then there were more than 40 cities with a population of over
100,000. (It wasn't until 1920 that the majority of Americans lived in cities).
Conditions in the industrial cities were often appalling. Many people lived in
overcrowded slums.
Meanwhile American agriculture continued to boom. It was helped by new
technology. Cyrus McCormick invented a mechanical reaper in 1834. John
Deere (1804-1886) invented the steel plow in 1838. In 1854 the first
successful self-governing windmill (that changed direction automatically to
face the wind) was made. In 1874 barbed wire was patented.
THE PLAINS INDIANS
Westward expansion inevitably meant wars with the plains Indians. From
the 1860s to the 1880s a series of wars were fought.

Eventually all the Indian Wars were won by the whites because of their
superior technology. They also hunted the buffalo, the main food supply,
almost to extinction. The plains tribes such as the Cheyenne, Arapaho and
Sioux were all forced to move onto reservations.
Conditions on the reservations were appalling. Rations were inadequate
and in some cases there was near starvation. Then in 1888 a Pauite Indian
called Wovok claimed he was the messiah. He claimed that soon North
America would be restored to the Natives and the plains would run black
with buffalo again. His followers did the ghost dance. This new religious
movement alarmed the white men. It ended with a massacre at Wounded
Knee on 29 December 1890. Soldiers were sent to disarm a group of
Indians but one man refused to surrender his gun. Somebody started
shooting and the rest of the soldiers followed killing many Indians (possibly
as many as 350). The massacre at Wounded Knee marked the end of the
Indian Wars and the final triumph of the white man.
Meanwhile in 1881 Helen Hunt Jackson published A Century of Dishonor
which showed how unjustly the native people had been treated. However in
1887 the Dawes Act was passed. It stated that tribal lands should be
divided up into individual holdings. The intention was to undermine the
tribal way of life and force the natives to adopt the white way of life.
Furthermore after the land was divided a great deal was left over. It was
declared 'surplus' and sold. As a result the amount of land held by Indians
declined drastically.
The year 1890 was significant for another reason. By then the frontier had
disappeared as settlers moved across the continent.
In the late 19th century several new states were added to the union. West
Virginia was admitted in 1863. Nevada followed in 1864. Nebraska was
admitted in 1867. It was followed by Colorado in 1876. In 1889 four new
states were admitted to the union, North and South Dakota, Montana and
Washington. In 1890 Idaho and Wyoming were admitted. Utah followed in
1896.
THE SPANISH WAR
In 1898 the USA fought a war with Spain. In the 1890s Cuba rebelled
against Spanish rule and the Spanish dealt with the rebels very harshly.
That enraged American public opinion. On 15 February 1898 an American
battleship, Maine, blew up in Havana Harbor, killing 260 men. It is not
certain what caused the explosion but many people blamed the Spanish.
On 25 April 1898 the USA went to war. On 1 May Spanish ships were
destroyed in Manila Harbor. US soldiers landed in the Philippines and they

captured Manila on 13 August. Meanwhile a Spanish fleet was destroyed
outside Santiago on 3 July. US soldiers landed in Cuba and captured
Santiago on 17 July. The last Spanish troops in Cuba surrendered on 26
July. An armistice was signed on 14 August. By a peace treaty, which was
signed in Paris on 10 December 1898, Cuba became independent while
the USA took the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam.
The Spanish War proved the USA was now a great power. By 1910 the
USA had overtaken Britain as the richest and most powerful nation in the
world. By then the population of the USA had reached 92 million.
Life in 19th Century America
20TH CENTURY USA
In the early 20th century three new states were admitted to the union,
Oklahoma in 1907 and Arizona and New Mexico in 1912.
Also in the early 20th century the USA built the Panama Canal. President
Theodore Roosevelt decided to build a canal across Panama in 1902. In
1903 the USA leased a 6-mile wide canal zone for 99 years. The canal was
built in the years 1904-1914.
THE USA IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR
When the First World War began in 1914 the USA remained neutral.
However Germany alienated American public opinion on 7 May 1915 when
a German submarine sank the Cunard liner Lusitania, without warning.
Among the 1,198 people killed were 128 Americans. Nevertheless
Woodrow Wilson fought the 1916 election partly on the slogan 'he kept us
out of the war'.
However on 1 February 1917 Germany began unrestricted submarine
warfare. That meant that any neutral ship attempting to trade with Britain
was a target for submarines. Furthermore British intelligence intercepted a
telegram from Arthur Zimmerman, German Foreign Secretary. It stated that
in the event of a war between Germany and the USA efforts should be
made to persuade Mexico to attack the USA. The Mexicans were offered
parts of the USA as a reward if they did so.
On 6 April 1917 the USA declared war on Germany. America had a strong
navy but a relatively small army. However conscription was introduced and
the USA began to raise a huge army. The first US troops were sent to
France in June 1917 but it was the spring of 1918 before large numbers
arrived. By September the US commander General John J. Pershing was

able to begin an offensive against the Germans. In September 1918 US
troops destroyed a German salient at St Mihiel. They then launched an
attack on the Meuse-Argonne area. German troops were pushed back until
Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918.
Meanwhile women gained the vote. In April 1917 only 11 states allowed
women to vote. However in 1918 the House adopted the 14th amendment,
which allowed women to vote. It was ratified in 1919 and came into effect in
1920.
The early 20th century saw internal migration in the USA. Many black
people moved from the south to the north especially to the big cities. The
National Association For The Advancements of Colored Peoples was
founded in 1909 to improve conditions for black people. However there
were race riots in several cities in 1919.
However immigration into the USA was severely restricted after 1921 when
the Emergency Quota Act was passed.
THE 1920s
For most people (not all) the 1920s were a time of prosperity. In 1912 only
16% of homes had electric light. By 1927 it had risen to 63%. Electrical
appliances became common, refrigerators, irons and fans. Radios also
became common. By 1930 40% of homes had one. Cars also became
common in the 1920s. Americans enjoyed the highest standard of living in
the world.
The 1920s were also the era of prohibition. The eighteenth amendment
was ratified in 1919 and came into force in 1920. It banned the
'manufacture, sale or transportation' of alcohol. However people simply
made alcohol illegally and drank it in 'speakeasies'. Worse, prohibition
boosted organized crime as gangsters tried to control the supply of alcohol.
Prohibition ended in 1933.
THE WALL STREET CRASH
In 1929 the American economy began to falter. Demand for new cars fell
and house building slowed down. However the stock market continued to
boom in the late 1920s. Many people bought stocks with borrowed money.
As a result the stock market became inflated. Prices rose to a very high
level. However, inevitably, some people began to sell. From mid-
September prices fell. On 24 October 1929, known as Black Thursday,
panic selling began and prices fell catastrophically, an event known as the
Wall Street Crash. Business confidence disappeared, banks failed and

industry slumped. By 1932 industrial production in the USA had fallen by
half and exports fell to one third of their 1929 level. Unemployment went
through the roof. By 1932 about one quarter of the work force was
unemployed. When people lost their jobs they could no longer buy goods
and demand fell so more people lost their jobs. There had been economic
slumps in America before but his one was more severe than anything
previously experienced. It was known as the Depression.
THE DEPRESSION
President Hoover did try and help. He persuaded employers to maintain
wages at their present levels. He also increased spending on roads,
bridges and public buildings. However Hoover refused to introduce federal
unemployment relief. He believed in what he called 'Rugged individualism'.
He believed too much state help would make people dependent.
For the unemployed life during the depression was very harsh. Many were
reduced to attending soup kitchens run by charities. (The soup was
sometimes called 'Hoover stew'). Destitute people lived in shantytowns
they called Hoovervilles. Hoover became deeply unpopular and in 1932
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected President.
THE NEW DEAL
Roosevelt assured the American people that the only thing they had to fear
was fear itself. He promised the American people 'A New Deal'. However
between 1933 and 1939 he had only limited success. Unemployment fell to
between 14% and 15% by 1937. However in that year the economy dipped
again. (It was called the recession) and unemployment rose to 17%.
However industrial production rose to its 1929 level again by 1939.
At first Roosevelt persuaded Congress to pass a number of laws in a hectic
period known as 'The Hundred Days'. One of the first things Roosevelt did
was to close all the banks in the USA by law. The Emergency Banking Act
of 9 March 1933 meant they would only open again if the Federal
government declared they were solvent. This measure persuaded people it
was safe to deposit their savings in banks. Restoring faith in banks was the
first step to dealing with the depression.
On 12 May 1933 the Federal Emergency Relief Act was passed to help the
unemployed. The states were given grants to provide work like repairing
roads and improving parks and schools.
Also in 1933 Roosevelt founded the civilian Conservation Corps, which
employed young men on conservation projects. A Public Works

Administration was created which built public buildings, bridges and dams.
Also the Tennessee Valley Authority was created to build dams and
hydroelectric plants.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 tried to raise the price of farm
produce by reducing supply. Land was set aside and deliberately not used.
In 1937 the Farm Security Administration was formed to lend money to
tenant farmers to buy their land.
However farmers on the plains suffered terribly during the depression. Over
planting, overgrazing and a drought combined to create a 'dust bowl'. Many
farmers abandoned the land and went to California in search of work.
In 1935 the Social Security Act created old age pensions and an
unemployment insurance scheme. Also in 1935 the National Labor
Relations Act or Wagner Act upheld workers right to collective bargaining.
In 1938 a Fair Labor Standards Act created a minimum wage.
Despite all of Roosevelt's efforts the depression only ended with the
coming of war.
THE APPROACH OF WAR
In 1940 Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium and
France. In response Roosevelt started to expand American armed forces.
He introduced conscription. Although American public opinion was opposed
to joining the war Roosevelt declared that America must be 'the arsenal of
democracy'. In January 1941 he introduced the lend-lease bill to Congress.
It empowered him to sell, lend or lease arms, food or any other supplies to
any country whose defense he deemed vital to the United States. At first
lend-lease applied only to Britain but in August Roosevelt extended it to
Russia. American troops also occupied Iceland.
THE USA IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR
On 7 December 1941 the Japanese attacked the American Pacific fleet at
Pearl Harbor. The next day Congress declared war on Japan. On 11
December 1941 Germany and Italy declared war on the USA.
The USA mobilized all its resources for war. Industrial output doubled
during World War II and by 1943 there was full employment. Only 2,000
aircraft were made in 1939 but by 1944 the figure was 96,000. The
American public suffered less than people in other countries because the
USA escaped occupation or air raids.

During World War II many black people migrated from the south to the
north and west. Black people became increasingly dissatisfied with their
position in American society. The National Association for the
Advancement of Colored Peoples increased its membership. The Congress
for Racial Equality was formed in 1942.
From March 1942 people of Japanese descent, on the west coast, were
interned. By September over 100,000 of them had been moved inland. Yet
many Japanese Americans served in the US armed forces.
The USA's massive industrial strength made the defeat of the Axis powers
(Germany, Italy and Japan) inevitable. Unfortunately Roosevelt did not live
to see the end of the war. He died on 12 April 1945.
PART FOUR THE MODERN USA
THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE
After World War II the USA was by far the richest and most powerful nation
in the world. However relations between the USA and the Soviet Union
quickly cooled after 1945. By 1947 the Cold War had begun.
In 1946 the British were helping the Greek government fight communist
guerrillas. However Britain was exhausted after World War II and could not
continue. On 12 March 1947 Truman announced that the USA must
'support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures.' Truman hoped the aid would be
primarily financial. The USA gave money to both Greece and Turkey. The
USA also provided massive aid for Europe, which was devastated by war.
The aid given was called the Marshall Plan after Secretary of State George
C. Marshall who first proposed aid for Europe in June 1947. The aid was
given in 1948-1951 and it greatly assisted European recovery. However in
1950 the USA was drawn into the Korean War.
THE FAIR DEAL
In his domestic policy Truman tried to extend the New Deal (his policies
became known as the 'Fair Deal'. but he was frustrated by Congress which
refused to pass most of his proposed laws. However in 1946 the
Employment Act committed the federal government to the aim of full
employment. In 1949 Congress increased the minimum wage and
extended state benefits to another 10 million people. Furthermore in 1949
the Housing Act provided for slum clearance and for public housing for
more than 800,000 people.

McCARTHYISM IN THE USA
The early 1950s was the era of McCarthyism. At that time there was a
great fear of communist infiltration. In 1946 Winston Churchill announced
that an 'iron curtain' was descending across Europe. Puppet communist
regimes were installed in Eastern Europe in countries like Hungary and
Bulgaria.
However in Czechoslovakia elections were held. For a time democratic
government ruled the country. Yet in 1948 it was overthrown by a
communist coup.
Fear was fanned by the case of Alger Hiss. He had been a high-ranking
government official. In 1948 a former communist called Whittaker
Chambers told the House Un-American Activities Committee (which
investigated 'un-American' activity) that Hiss was a spy for the Soviet
Union. Hiss denied the charge. He could not be arrested for spying
because of a statute of limitation. However he was charged with perjury
and he was convicted in January 1950. The case increased fears of
communist subversion.
Furthermore in 1949 the Russians exploded an atomic bomb. The
American people were shocked to hear that spies had helped the Russians
to develop a bomb by leaking them information.
Into this atmosphere of fear stepped Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-
1957). In February 1950 McCarthy claimed that he had a list of communists
employed by the State Department. McCarthy then began a witch-hunt in
which many people lost their jobs. However eventually McCarthy
overreached himself and he began to accuse too many important people.
Public support ebbed away and in December 1954 McCarthy was finally
censored by the Senate.
Despite McCarthy the 1950s were a prosperous period for America.
Unemployment was low, living standards rose and TV became common.
The USA launched its first satellite in 1958. However the prosperity was not
shared by everyone.
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN THE USA
The struggle for civil rights really began in the 1950s. In the south at that
time schools were segregated. In 1896 the Supreme Court ruled that
segregation was constitutional as long as equal facilities were provided for
both groups. In reality, of course, facilities for black people were always
inferior. In 1954 the Supreme Court recognized this and overturned the

previous decision. However most white people in the south were strongly
opposed to desegregation and they dragged their feet. In 1957 when Little
Rock Central High School was desegregated 9 black students were
prevented from entering, first by the Arkansas National Guard then by the
local people. Eventually Eisenhower had to send troops to allow the black
students to enter.
In the south most black people did not register to vote. In 1957 and 1960
Civil Rights Acts were passed to try and remove obstacles to them doing
so. Neither was very successful.
However black Americans or African Americans had great success with
non-violent campaigning. In 1955 Montgomery Alabama had a law, which
said black people must sit at the back of buses. In December 1955 a
woman called Rosa Parks sat at the front of a bus and refused to move.
She was arrested. Black people then organized a boycott of the buses.
Finally segregation on buses was ruled unconstitutional. One of the leaders
of the boycotts was to become famous. He was the Baptist Minister Martin
Luther King (1929-1968).
In 1960 black students in Greensboro, North Carolina were refused service
in a restaurant. They then staged a sit-in. The sit-in movement quickly
spread to shops, hotels, theaters and parks and had some success in
forcing them to desegregate.
In 1962 President Kennedy sent troops to the State University of
Mississippi to enforce a court order that a black student should be
admitted.
In 1963 a quarter of a million people marched on Washington to demand
civil rights legislation. Martin Luther King made a speech beginning with the
immortal words 'I have a dream', in which he outlined his vision of racial
harmony.
However black campaigners met with violence. In 1963 a campaigner
named Medgar Evers was shot and killed. Also in 1963 a bomb exploded in
a Baptist church in Birmingham Alabama, killing four black girls. In 1965 the
militant black leader Malcolm X was assassinated.
In 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which gave all
people equal rights in voting, education, public accommodation and
federally assisted programs.
However in 1965 black anger and resentment boiled over into rioting. Riots
in Los Angeles left 34 people dead. More riots followed in 1966 and in

1967. On 4 April 1968 the great orator Martin Luther King was
assassinated. His death provoked further riots.
Native Americans also began to protest about their treatment. In 1968 they
formed the American Indian Movement. In 1969 they occupied Alcatraz
Island. In 1972 they marched on Washington in the Trail of Broken Treaties
and occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1973 they occupied Wounded
Knee village.
JOHN F. KENNEDY AND LYNDON B. JOHNSON
In the early 1960s Kennedy strengthened the American armed forces. He
also committed the USA to landing a man on the moon by the end of the
decade. Kennedy also created the Peace Corps, which sent volunteers to
help with various educational, economic and welfare schemes in poor
countries.
In his foreign policy Kennedy agreed to a plan to send 1,500 Cuban
refugees to overthrow Cuba. The refugees landed at the Bay of Pigs in
1961 and were quickly routed by the Cuban forces. After that fiasco came
the Cuban missiles crisis. The Russians placed long-range missiles on
Cuba that were capable of hitting the USA. In 1963 Kennedy also signed a
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate in June 1963.
Kennedy was assassinated on 22 November 1963.
Lyndon B. Johnson called for an 'all out war on poverty', recognizing that
while the USA was the richest country in the world a considerable part of
her population were poor. During his presidency several important acts
were passed, which it was hoped would tackle the roots of poverty. The
Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 provided for adult education and job
training. The Medicare Act of 1965 provided health and hospital insurance
for over 65s. The Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided aid for
schools with large numbers of poor and deprived children. The Voting
Rights Act of 1965 finally removed obstacles to black people voting. It
banned the use of literacy tests and gave the federal government power to
oversee voter registration and elections in certain circumstances.
THE VIETNAM WAR
In the early 20th century the French ruled Vietnam but in 1941 it was
occupied by the Japanese. The Americans did not approve of European
colonialism and had no wish to see Vietnam handed back to the French
after the war. Nevertheless after World War II the French tried to rule
Vietnam again. However they were opposed by communist guerrillas.

With the onset of the Cold War American sympathy for the Vietnamese
cooled and from 1950 financial aid was given to the French to prop up their
rule in Vietnam. Senator John Kennedy said that the USA had 'allied itself
to the desperate effort of the French regime to hang on to the remnants of
an empire'. He was soon proved right. In 1954 the French were utterly
defeated by the guerrillas at Diem Bien Phu. Afterwards they withdrew and
Vietnam was split into north and south. In the late 1950s communist
guerrillas infiltrated the south. After they attacked US installations in
October 1957 the USA began to provide the South Vietnamese dictator
with money and materials.
In the 1960s American policy in Vietnam was influenced by the 'domino
theory', which said that if one country fell to communism neighboring states
would also fall. American involvement in Vietnam really began in 1961
when Kennedy sent the first soldiers.
American involvement increased after August 1964 when North
Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked US warships. Congress agreed to a
resolution allowing the president to 'take all necessary measures to repel
any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent
further aggression in Southeast Asia'. As a result American forces in South
Vietnam rapidly increased and reached half a million by the end of 1967.
The USAF also carried out strategic bombing of the north. However the
Vietcong continued to fight a successful guerrilla war. The Vietnam War
became increasingly unpopular at home. From 1965 onward anti-war
demonstrations were held. Then on 30 January 1968 came the Tet
offensive. The Vietcong attacked towns and cities in South Vietnam.
Eventually they were repulsed but American public opinion hardened. On 3
April 1968 peace talks began. From 1970 President Nixon slowly withdrew
US troops from South Vietnam proposing to let the South Vietnamese
defend themselves. The last US troops left in 1973.
WATERGATE
The USA was also troubled when its President became involved in a
scandal and was forced to resign.
On 17 June 1972 five men broke into the Democratic Party Headquarters in
the Watergate Building. The five were arrested. Later two other men, both
former White House officials, were also arrested. All the men worked for
the Committee for Re-election of the President or CREEP. However
President Richard Nixon denied that his administration had anything to do
with the break in.

The seven men were all convicted but at the sentencing in March 1973 one
of them claimed the White House had arranged a 'cover up' of its
involvement in the break in. Subsequently investigations revealed that a
number of White House staff were involved in planning the break in and in
arranging a 'cover up'.
Nixon firmly denied that he was personally involved in any attempted 'cover
up'. However he refused to surrender tapes of conversations in his private
office, which would prove his guilt or innocence. In April 1974 he agreed to
hand over edited versions. In July 1974 the Supreme Court ordered him to
hand over all relevant tapes. On 5 August 1974 Nixon surrendered tapes
which made it clear that he was involved in an attempted 'cover up'. Having
lost all support Nixon resigned on 9 August 1974.
After Vietnam and the Watergate scandal the USA suffered a recession in
the mid-1970s. Unemployment rose to 8.5% in 1975. Despite its troubles
the United States remained by far the richest and most powerful nation in
the world.
In 1980 the USA was in the grip of a recession. However in the mid and
late 1980s the economy grew steadily. Unemployment was almost 11% in
1982. It fell to 7% in 1985 and 5.5% in 1988. In 1999 it stood at 4.2%.
Meanwhile inflation fell from 12.5% in 1980 to 4.4% in 1988.
Meanwhile the Cold War came to a sudden end in 1989 when communism
collapsed in Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 leaving
the USA the world's only superpower.
THE USA IN THE 21ST CENTURY
In the late 20th century the population of the USA grew very rapidly, partly
due to immigration. Today the population of the USA is 316 million.
The USA suffered a recession in 2008-2009 but it soon recovered and it
remains a very wealthy country.
Meanwhile in 2008 Barack H. Obama was elected the first African
American president of the USA.
A TIMELINEOF AMERICANHISTORY

COLONIAL AMERICA
1585 Walter Raleigh attempts to fund a colony in Virginia. An expedition is
led by Richard Grenville.
1586 The colony is abandoned
1587 John White leads another attempt to establish a colony in Virginia.
However the colonists mysteriously disappear.
1607 The Virginia Company founds a colony at Jamestown.
1612 John Rolfe begins growing tobacco in Virginia
1619 The first representative government in North America is created when
the House of Burgesses meets.
1620 Fleeing religious persecution a group of settlers lands in New
England
1623 The first settlers land in New Hampshire
1624 The Dutch found a colony they call New Netherland
1634 Maryland is founded as a haven for Catholics (though not all settlers
are Catholic)
1636 The first settlers land in Rhode Island
1637-38 The Pequot War ends in destruction of Pequot tribe
1638 The Swedes found a colony at Fort Christina. (Present day
Wilmington).
1647 Alice Young from Windsor, Connecticut is hanged for witchcraft. She
is the first person in America to be executed for witchcraft.
1655 The Dutch capture the Swedish colony and make it part of New
Netherland
1660 The first navigation act states that certain goods from the colonies
can only be exported to England or to other colonies, not to foreign
countries
1663

A new colony is founded in the Carolinas. (Originally North and South
Carolina were one colony).
The first settlers arrive in New Jersey.
1664 The British capture New Netherland from the Dutch and rename
it New York.
1670 The first settlers arrive in what is now South Carolina
1670, 1673 Further navigation acts are passed
1679
New Hampshire is made a colony in its won right, separate from
Massachusetts.
A Frenchman, De la Salle explores the Great Lakes.
1681 A Quaker named William Penn founds Pennsylvania
1682 Penn founds Philadelphia.
De la Salle claims Louisiana for France.
1692 A witch hunt takes place in Salem
1700 The population of the North American colonies is around 300,000
1701
North and South Carolina are separated.
Yale College is founded.
The French found Detroit.
1704 Delaware is permitted its own assembly
1706 In Virginia Grace Sherwood is convicted of witchcraft and jailed for 8
years
1718 The French found New Orleans
1732 Georgia is founded
1742

Benjamin Franklin invents a type of stove.
Coal is discovered in West Virginia.
1746 Princeton is founded
1750 Thomas Walker discovers the Cumberland Gap
1752 Benjamin Franklin invents the lightning conductor
1756-1763 The Seven Years War between Britain and France. Britain
takes Canada
1760 The population of the North American colonies has risen to about 1
million
1763 A royal proclamation called the Great Proclamation bans any further
westward advancement. (The British hope to avoid expensive wars with the
natives).
1764 The Sugar Act is passed by the British parliament. Duty on molasses
from the West Indies is actually reduced but the British make vigorous
efforts to stop smuggling and collect all the duty. This causes resentment
among Americans.
1764 The Currency Act is passed by the British parliament. It bans
American colonies from printing their own money, so restricting trade and
causing further resentment.
1765 The Stamp Act imposes tax on legal documents, newspapers and
playing cards. This infuriates the Americans who protest and boycott British
merchants.
1766 The British repeal the Stamp Act but they pass the Declaratory Act
which states that the British parliament is sovereign over all American
colonies. This aggravates the Americans.
1767 The British impose duties on lead, glass, paint, oil and tea. The
Americans are infuriated and boycott British goods.
1768 The first recorded strike in America by tailors in New York
1770
The British are forced to back down and by March 1770 the only duty
remains on tea. However in Boston on 5 March 1770 some people throw

snowballs at British soldiers. The soldiers open fire killing 5 people and
wounding 6. This became known as the Boston Massacre. Of the 8 soldiers
put on trial 6 are acquitted, two are convicted of manslaughter and branded
on the thumb. Their lenient treatment infuriates the Americans.
1773 The 'Boston Tea Party'. The British East India Company sends 3
shiploads of tea to Boston. On 16 December men dressed as Indians board
the ship and dump the tea in the sea.
1774
The British parliament passes the Coercive or Intolerable Acts. The port of
Boston is closed. The seat of government of the colony is moved to Salem.
The charter of Massachusetts is changed to give the royal governor more
power.
In September a Continental Congress meets. It demands repeal of the
Coercive Acts and an end to British interference in American affairs.
1775
On 5 February the British declare that the state of Massachusetts is in a
state of rebellion.
On 19 April fighting begins when British soldiers try to seize a colonial arms
dump near Concord.
In May another Continental Congress meets and agrees to raise an army.
George Washington is made its leader.
In August George III declares that all the American colonies are in a state
of rebellion.
1776
In May Congress decides that royal government should end and
government should be 'under the authority of the people'. Colonies draw up
state constitutions to replace their charters. In July the Declaration of
Independence is signed.
Life in 18th Century Colonial America
THE EARLY USA
1776

In August the British win the battle of Long Island.
In September the British capture New York.
In December the Americans win the battle of Trenton.
1777
In January the Americans win the battle of Princeton.
In September the British win the battle of Brandywine.
The Articles of Confederation are drawn up.
In October the Americans win a decisive victory at Saratoga.
1778 France declares war on Britain in support of the Americans
1779 Spain declares war on Britain in support of the Americans
1780
The Dutch declare war on Britain in support of the Americans.
In October the Americans win the battle of Kings Mountain.
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences is founded.
1781
On 17 January the Americans, led by General Daniel Morgan win the battle
of Cowpen in South Carolina boosting American morale. The Americans
then retreated into Virginia.
In October the Americans win a decisive victory at Yorktown. With the
surrender of a British army under Cornwallis all British hopes of keeping the
colonies evaporate. American independence is assured.
1783
The Treaty of Paris ends the War of Independence.
The population of the USA is about 2 million.
1784 Benjamin Franklin invents bi-focal glasses.
1787 The US constitution is framed

1789 The first Congress meets and George Washington becomes the first
President
1791 Vermont is admitted to the Union as the 14th state
1792
Kentucky becomes the 15th state.
The first mint in the USA is founded.
1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin. The result is a revival of slavery in
the southern states.
1794
The natives are defeated in battle at the battle of Fallen Timbers.
The first labor union is formed in Philadelphia by cordwainers (shoe
makers). In the early 19th century many skilled workers form local unions
(in their town or city).
The US navy is founded.
1795 By the treaty of Greenville the natives are forced to surrender most of
Ohio
1796 Tennessee becomes the 16th state
1800 The Library of Congress is founded
1803
Ohio becomes the 17th state.
The US purchases Louisiana from Napoleon for $15 million.
1810 The population of the USA is 7.2 million
1812
Louisiana becomes the 18th state.
On 18 June the USA declares war on Britain.
1813

The Americans win a naval victory on Lake Erie
In July the Creeks are defeated at the battle of Horseshoe Bend and are
forced to hand over more than half their land.
In August the British capture Washington.
At the end of the year a peace treaty end the war.
1815 On 8 January two armies fight at New Orleans and the British are
defeated
1816 Indiana is admitted as a state
1817-18 The Americans fight the Seminoles of Florida
1817 Mississippi is admitted as a state
1818 Illinois is admitted as a state
1819 Alabama is admitted as a state
1820 The population of the USA reaches 20 million
1821 Missouri is admitted as a state
1821 Spain cedes Florida to the USA
1825 The Erie Canal is opened
1828 The first railway is built in the USA
1830 Andrew Jackson signs the Indian Removal Bill, which forces natives
east of the Mississippi River to move to Oklahoma
1832 The Choctaws are forced to move
1834 Cyrus McCormick invents a mechanical reaper
1835
The Creeks are forced to move.
The Texans rebel against the Mexicans.
1836

Arkansas is admitted as a state.
The Texas Declaration of Independence is signed.
The defenders of the Alamo are massacred.
On 21 April the Texans crush the Mexicans at the battle of San Jacinto. As
a result Texas becomes independent.
1837 Michigan is admitted as a state
1838 John Deere invents the steel plow
1842 The first wagon train uses the Oregon Trail
1845
Texas is admitted to the union.
Florida is also admitted to the union as a state.
1846
Iowa is admitted to the Union.
The Mexican War begins. The Americans win battles at Palo Alto and
Reseca de la Palma.
1847 The Americans capture Vercruz and Mexico City
1848
Wisconsin is admitted to the Union.
In January gold is discovered at Sutters Mill in California.
In February the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the Mexican War.
Mexico cedes New Mexico and California to the USA.
1849 Huge numbers of people move to California in search of gold
1850
California is admitted to the Union.
Argument is growing over the issue of slavery and over whether new states
should allow slavery or not. A compromise of 1850 states that the territories

of New Mexico and Utah should decide for themselves whether to allow
slavery when they apply to become states.
In New York police disperse striking tailors killing 2 men.
1852 The first national labor union is formed by printers, the National
Typographical Union.
1857 In the Dred-Scott case the Supreme Court declares that slaves are
not and never can be US citizens
1859 Oregon is admitted to the Union
1860
The population of the USA reaches 60 million.
In December South Carolina cedes from the Union.
The Civil War
1861
Kansas is admitted to the Union.
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana cede from the Union.
On 4 February 1861 they form the Confederate States.
Civil war begins on 12 April when Unionist troops are ordered to evacuate
Fort Sumter. When they refuse the Confederates bombard them. The
unionists eventually surrender and are allowed to leave.
In May Arkansas cedes from the Union. Tennessee and North Carolina
follow.
In July the Unionists are defeated at the battle of Bull Run.
1862
In April the Unionists win the battle of Shiloh.
Also in April the Unionists capture New Orleans.
In May they capture Baton Rouge.
In May the army of the Potomac captures Yorktown.

In August the Confederates win a victory at Second Bull Run (also called
Second Manassas).
On 13 December the Confederates win another victory at Fredericksburg.
The Homesteader Act gives 160 acres of free land provided the settler tills
if for 5 years.
1863
West Virginia is admitted to the Union.
In May Robert E. Lee wins another victory at Chancellorville.
In July the tide turns. The Unionists win the battle of Gettysburg.
In November the Unionists win another victory at Chatanooga.
1864
On 3 September Sherman enters Atlanta.
On 21 December Sherman's troops capture Savannah on the coast. The
Confederacy is cut in half.
1865
The Confederate position is increasingly hopeless. On 19 February
Sherman captures Columbia.
On 2 April the Confederates abandon Petersburg and Richmond.
On 9 April Lee surrenders to Grant at Appotamax Court House.
On 15 April Lincoln is assassinated.
On 18 April Johnston surrenders to Sherman.
On 26 May 1865 the last Confederate army surrenders.
1866 Congress passes a civil rights act, which states that all people born in
the USA are now citizens
1867 Nebraska is admitted to the Union.
The USA buys Alaska from the Russians.

1869
The first transcontinental railroad is built.
The Knights of Labor is formed in Philadelphia.
1871 Chicago is devastated by a fire
1874
Barbed wire is patented.
Levi Straus begins making riveted jeans.
1875
By another civil rights act all people regardless of race, color or previous
condition are entitled to equal treatment in 'inns, conveyances on land or
water, theaters, and other places of public amusement'
1876 Colorado is admitted to the Union
1877
Troops are withdrawn from the South.
The Great Railway Strike happens. America is gripped by recession and
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad cuts wages. The workers strike and stop
trains from moving. There is a great deal of sympathy for the railroad
workers among other working class Americans. The strike spreads to other
railroads and even other industries. Strikers and their supporters hold
demonstrations and riots. There is a wave of unrest across America. In
Baltimore the Maryland militia fire into a crowd killing 10 people. Eventually
federal troops are sent in to restore order city by city.
1879 F W Woolworth opens a 'five and ten cent store'
1881 President James Garfield is shot
1882 On 3 April Jesse James is shot
1883 The Supreme Court rules the 1875 civil rights act unconstitutional.
1884 The first skyscraper, the Home Insurance Building is built in Chicago.
1885

The Knights of Labor have about 110,000 members. They demand an 8
hour day, and end to child labor and equal pay for equal work.
1886 The American Federation of Labor is formed. (A federation of labor
unions)
1860s-1880s
A series of wars are fought between Americans and natives. The natives
are gradually forced onto reservations where conditions are horrid.
1880s The USA is the fastest growing industrial nation in the world
1889 Four new states are admitted, North and South Dakota, Montana and
Washington
1890
Idaho and Wyoming are admitted to the Union.
On 29 December natives are massacred at Wounded Knee, bringing the
Indian Wars to a close.
By 1890 the frontier has disappeared.
1892 Steelworkers at Carnegie's plant at Homestead Pennsylvania go on
strike. A fight with Pinkertons follows. Three Pinkertons and seven strikers
are killed.
1894 The Pullman Strike. Workers at the Pullman car works go on strike.
Sympathetic railroad workers agree to boycott trains carrying Pullman cars.
President Grover sends federal troops to break the strike (on the grounds
that it is interfering with the delivery of US mail) and to keep the trains
going. Some 13 strikers are killed.
1896
Utah is admitted to the Union.
The Supreme Court permits segregated schools provided facilities are
equal. (In reality facilities for black people are always inferior).
1898
On 15 February the battleship Maine blows up in Havana Harbor killing 260
men.

On 25 April the USA goes to war with Spain.
On 17 July American troops capture Santiago.
On 26 July the last troops in Cuba surrender.
On 13 August American troops capture Manila.
On 14 August an armistice is signed.
In December a peace treaty is signed. Cuba becomes independent. The
USA takes the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam.
MODERN AMERICA
1901
President William McKinley is assassinated.
Oil is discovered in Texas.
1902 The Flatiron building is built in New York
1906 San Francisco is devastated by an earthquake
1907 Oklahoma is admitted to the Union
1908 Henry Ford starts making the model T
1909 Geronimo dies
C. 1910 The USA emerges as the richest and most powerful country in the
world
1912 Arizona and New Mexico are admitted to the Union
1904-1914 The Panama Canal is built
1913
The Woolworth building is completed.
Grand Central Station in New York opens.
1914 The Ludlow Massacre. National Guardsmen attack striking coal
miners in Colorado and kill 20 people.

1915 On 7 May a German submarine sinks the liner Lusitania killing 128
Americans.
1916 Jeanette Rankin becomes the first congresswoman
1917
On 1 February Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare. They sink
all neutral ships trying to trade with Britain.
British intelligence intercepts a telegram from Arthur Zimmerman, German
Foreign Secretary, which states that if Germany goes to war with the USA
Mexico should be encouraged to attack the USA.
On 6 April the USA declares war on Germany.
In June the first American soldiers are sent to France.
1918
Vast numbers of US troops travel to France.
In September the Americans destroy a German salient at St Mihiel. They
then launch an attack in the Meuse-Argonne area.
In November Germany surrenders.
1920
Women gain the vote in federal elections.
Prohibition begins. It is now illegal to make, transport or sell alcohol.
1921The Emergency Quota Act restricts immigration
1920s The US economy booms. Consumer goods such as cars become
common. Radio also becomes common.
1925 The first motel opens
1927 The Jazz Singer, the first 'talkie' is made
1929
The American economy enters a downturn.

On 24 October, Black Thursday, panic selling of shares happens. This
event becomes known as the Wall Street Crash.
1929-1932
Business confidence disappears. Banks fail and industry slumps.
By 1932 American industrial production has fallen by half and exports have
fallen to one third of their 1929 level. About 25% of the workforce are
unemployed.
President Hoover advocates ‘rugged individualism’. He believes too much
state help makes people dependent.
The destitute live in shantytowns they call Hoovervilles. Soup kitchens
make soup called Hoover Stew.
1930 The Chrysler building opens
1931 The Empire State building opens
1932 In November Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected president
1933
In March the Emergency Banking Act closes all banks. They are only
allowed to reopen if the federal government declares they are solvent.
In May the Federal Emergency Relief Act gives states grants to provide
work like repairing roads and improving parks and schools.
Roosevelt also from the Civilian Conservation Corps which employs young
men on conservation projects.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act tries to help farmers by reducing supply.
Land is set aside and not used.
1935
The Social Security Act creates old age pensions and an unemployment
insurance scheme.
The National Labor Relations Act upholds workers right to collective
bargaining.
1937

Wallace Carothers discovers nylon.
The Goldengate Bridge opens.
The Memorial day massacre. Police kill 12 men in an American steel strike.
1938
A Fair Labor Standards Act creates a minimum wage.
The Congress of Industrial Organizations is formed.
1939
American industrial production reaches its 1929 level. However there is still
mass unemployment and Roosevelt’s measures have had only limited
success.
Pan American Airways makes its first transatlantic flight.
1940
In January unemployment in the USA stands at 14%.
Alarmed by German success in Europe Roosevelt introduces conscription.
1941
On 7 December Japan attacks the US fleet at Pearl Harbor.
On 11 December Germany and Italy declare war on the USA.
1942
The Japanese have some initial success but they are crushed at the battle
of Midway Island.
In November US troops invade French territory in Northwest Africa.
1943 US troops invade Italy
1944 US troops invade France
1945 Germany and Japan surrender
1947 The Cold War has begun

1948-1951 The USA provides Marshall Aid to help rebuild Europe, which
has been shattered by war.
1949 The Housing Act provides for slum clearance and for public housing
1950-54 Senator Joseph McCarthy leads a witch hunt against suspected
communists
1954
The Supreme Court overturns the decision of 1896, which allowed
segregated schools.
The first shopping mall opens in Detroit.
1955
James Dean dies in a car crash aged 24.
In December Rosa Parks sits on the front of a bus (reserved for white
people) in Alabama and refuses to move. She is arrested but black people
organize a boycott of the buses. Finally segregation on buses is ruled
unconstitutional.
1957 Eisenhower sends troops to allow black students to enter Little Rock
Central High School
1958 The USA launches its first satellite Explorer I
1959
Hawaii and Alaska are admitted to the union as states.
The Guggenheim Museum opens in New York.
1960 Black students in North Carolina stage a sit in when they are refused
service in a restaurant. The sit-in movement quickly spreads.
1961 Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American in space.
1962 Kennedy sends troops to the State University of Mississippi to
enforce a court order that a black student be admitted.
1963
A bomb explodes in a black church in Birmingham, Alabama, killing 4 girls.

A quarter of a million people march on Washington to demand civil rights.
Martin Luther King makes his famous ‘I have a dream’ speech.
In November Kennedy is assassinated.
1964
Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act.
In August North Vietnamese torpedo boats attack US warships. American
involvement in Vietnam escalates.
1965 Malcolm X is assassinated
1965-68 Black anger and resentment boil over into rioting
1968
Martin Luther King is assassinated.
Bobby Kennedy is shot.
The American Indian Movement is formed.
The Vietcong launch the Tet offensive.
1969
Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to step on the moon.
The Woodstock Pop Festival is held.
1970-73 American troops are withdrawn from Vietnam.
1972
Native Americans march on Washington in the Trail of Broken Treaties.
Men from the Committee for Re-election of the President (CREEP) break
into the Democratic Party HQ in the Watergate Building. Nixon denies any
involvement.
1973 Native American protesters occupy Wounded Knee
1974 Nixon is forced to resign.
1975 The USA is gripped by a recession. Unemployment climbs to 8.5%

1980 Ronald Reagan is elected President
1981 The first space shuttle is launched
1980-82 The USA suffers recession. Inflation reaches 12.5% in 1908.
Unemployment climbs to 11% in 1982.
1981 On 20 March President Reagan is shot and wounded
1983 Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space.
1985 The American economy recovers and unemployment falls to 7%
1986 On 28 January the Challenger space shuttle blows up
1988 Unemployment in the USA falls to 5.5% and inflation falls to 4.4%
1989 San Francisco is rocked by another earthquake
1992 There are race riots in Los Angeles when 4 white policemen accused
of beating Rodney King are acquitted
1994 Los Angeles suffers an earthquake
1996 The Welfare Reform Act is passed to cut back welfare spending
1999 The American economy is prospering and unemployment stands at
4.2%
2005 New Orleans is devastated by Hurricane Katrina
2008 Barrack Obama is elected the first African American president

A Brief History Of USA

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A Brief History Of USA