AS Level Human Geography - Migration of Population
- 2. Contents • Migration as a Component of Population • Internal Migration • International Migration
- 4. Definition of terms Migration: The movement of people across a specified boundary, national or international, to establish a new place of residence. The UN defines permanent as lasting more than 1 year The Core: A region of concentrated economic development with advanced systems of infrastructure, resulting in high average income and relatively low unemployment The Periphery: A region of low or declining economic development characterized by low income and relatively low unemployment
- 5. Definition of terms Macro level: Large scale Meso level: Intermediate scale Micro level: Small Scale Chain Migration: When one or a small number of pioneering migrants have led the way in rural urban migrations, and other in the same rural communities follow Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person’s place of origin to final destination – such as moving from a farm to a village and finally to a city
- 6. Definition of terms Stepped migration: When a rural migrant initially /heads for a familiar small town and then after a period of time moves on to a larger urban settlement. Over the years, migrants may take several steps up the urban hierarchy Counterurbanisation: The process of population de- centralization where an increasing number of population move from large urban areas to rural areas or smaller urban settlements Voluntary migration: A migration of choice where the individual/ household has a free choice about whether to move or not Forced migration: A migration without a choice when the individual/ household has little or no choice but to move.
- 7. Definition of terms Someone who has been forced to leave home and country because of a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, social group or political opinion. Someone who has been forced to leave his/her home for reasons similar to a refugee but who remains in the same country. Immigration: Movement of people into a country Emigration: movement of people out of a country In-migration: Movement of people into a region Out-migration: Movement of people out of a region
- 8. Definition of terms • Diaspora: The dispersal of people from their original homeland • Multiplier effect: Where an increase in the money supply in a region sets off an upward spiral of development as this money circulates the economy
- 9. Models of Migration 1. E.S. Lee’s Origin-Obstacles-Intervention model 2. Akin Mobugunje’s System Approach 3. Todaro’s Cost-Benefit Model 4. Stark-Todaro’s New Economics of Migration 5. Marxist/ Structuralist Theory 6. Ravenstein’s law 7. Structuration theory 8. Gender Analysis
- 10. Lee’s Model • Lee’s Model introduces the idea of push- pull factor in migration • Decision is often made as an individual • Push and Pull factors working to encourage migration • With intervening obstacles playing a part
- 12. Todaro’s Cost-effective approach • Migrants’ perception are not entirely skewed • They know that initial life in urban area won’t be entirely positive • Migrants weigh up the possibilities of achieving a better life in the areas of origins to the areas of destinations • There are more opportunities in destinations
- 14. Stark’s New Economics of Migration • An extension of Todaro’s model • Decision is also by household • A form of economic diversification • A cost/reward sharing • Risk spreading – as a response to rural deprivation
- 15. Marxist Theory • A transition to capitalism • Market force is the main factor • The only option of alienation from the land • Emphasizes the control market force has over migrants
- 16. Structuration Theory • Incorporate personal motives and structural forces of economy, society and culture • Rules designed to regulate can also create forces that lead to more opportunity
- 17. Gender Roles • Patriarchal society may lead to men moving more than women • Emancipation of women leads to higher mobility of the gender • Higher mobility – whole movement of household
- 18. Ravenstein’s Law 1. The ides of distance decay 2. There are always counter-current 3. Dispersion is inverse of absorption 4. Most migration are two ways 5. Longer distance migration will be movement toward urban areas 6. Most migrants are rural 7. Female migrants migrate more in shorter distance. Male migrants migrate more in longer distances
- 19. Constraints/ Obstacles/ Barriers • Legal obstacles e.g. hukou system • Obstacles: Distance/ Cost • Migrants may not have enough money to move out • Cost for closing up (may be higher in MEDCs) • Actual Cost of transport • Costs of opening up – is also high
- 20. Cost for closing up • Vary according to the value of the estate • LEDCs: monetary value small – personal value high • MEDCs: Real estates agents, legal fees, possessions
- 21. Travelling Cost • Depends on the mode of transport • Time taken / distance travelled • Costs for transporting possession • Danger associated with journey • Ethnic tension/ discrimination • Thieves/ Smugglers • Natural obstcles
- 22. Opening Up cost • Usually quite high especially in urban area • To find an area housing • Deal with legal fees • Buy furniture • Unless: lives in informal housing/ share with relatives
- 23. Collecting Data in Migration • Population censuses • Migrants registers • Specific surveys • Airports etc.
- 25. Distance, Direction, Pattern • Distance may have filtering effects on migration – Distance Decay • Direction: Migration’s direction usually follows the push-pull factor – usually by rural-urban movement or periphery to core movements • Rural-rural migration is equally important
- 26. Distance in migration • Intra-national (within a country) • Local • Intra-district/ inter-district (Within district/ between districts) • Intra-provincial/ Inter-provincial (Within a province/ between provinces) • Intra-regional/ Inter regional (Within regions/ between regions)
- 27. Distance • Distance can differentiate types of movements/ types of movers • Are they: wealthy/ poor • LEDCs/ MEDCs • Ethnicity • Gender • Family • Permanent movement or Temporary movement
- 28. Directions • Most prevalent: Periphery – core / Rural- urban • From culturally traditional – areas of rapid changes
- 29. Directions • Larger difference in magnitude between socio-economic (Socio-economic disparities) = larger scale of rural urban movement in LEDCs • Rural-rural movement may also be common
- 31. The Causes of Migration • Reasons for Rural – urban movement • Political resettling
- 32. Rural-urban movement causes • Influence by push/pull factors • PUSH FACTORS: Land reforms not complete Inheritance law – causes the land to be divided over and over again Low agricultural output Natural disasters
- 33. Rural-urban movement causes • PUSH FACTORS: Mechanization – lower farm employment – rural depopulation – rural service decline Underemployment Overpopulation Activities of governments Activities of transnational companies
- 34. Rural-urban movement causes • PULL FACTORS: based on the perception? Better housing Employment Proximity to amenities/ services Improved lifestyle Reliable source of food
- 35. Division of causes into 3 scales • Each scale of motives affect migrants at different levels • Macro scale: At a national level • Meso level: At a regional/ village level • Micro level: At a family/ personal level
- 36. Macro-level • Highlights socio-economic disparity • Focuses on core-periphery concept • Akin of the Marxist/ Structuralist concept • Migrants move in response to market forces and the need for employment.
- 37. Macro-level • In LEDCs – had its start in the colonial era – most people are forced to move to cities as workers or by taxation laws • LEDCs development – urbanization/ industrialization – leads to migrants movement by the forces of capitalism • Disproportionate investment – more in capital cities
- 38. Meso Level • More detailed analysis of origin, obstacles, destinations • Follows more closely E.S. Lee’s model of migration • Todaro's/ Stark's model begin to play a part • Individual perception highlighted • Economic reasons are still very dominant
- 39. The Micro-level • Specific circumstances of individual families • Conflicts within family? • Urban relatives/ contact? • Very important when long distance involved
- 40. The Micro-level • Level of income • Size of land holding • Size of household • Stage in Life Cycle • Level of Education • Cohesiveness in family unit
- 41. Impacts • Socio-economic Impacts • Political Impacts • Demographic Impacts • Environmental Impacts
- 42. Socio-Economic • Remittances has been seen as a benefit to the area of origin • Also seen as an out-flow of money from urban areas
- 43. Socio-Economic • The flow of money/ support is not unilateral 1. Remittance sent home to rural areas vs. money sent to urban areas as start-up cost/ money for education 2. Migrants move in for education vs. Return of educated migrants 3. Lost of workforce vs. Return of experienced, skilled workforce 4. Young villagers vs. return flow of experienced workers
- 44. Socio-Economic • Newly developed opportunities tend to stimulate new migrants • However, in some extreme LEDCs – migrants may be illiterate, unskilled and uninformed of the opportunities • Development in rural areas – tend to result in even more out-migration
- 45. Socio-Economic • Rural migrants – young, economically active workforce • May provide great workforce • May also create strains on the resources
- 46. Socio-Economic • Impacts on the areas of origins 1. May reduce unemployment/ underemployment 2. Remittances return 3. Migrants return with skills 4. Promotes development in rural regions 5. Leads to migration becoming unnecessary 6. Patriarchal society reversed?
- 47. Socio-Economic • Impacts on the areas of origins 1. Lost of agricultural workforce 2. Lost of parents to children 3. Higher need for child labor 4. Can have an effect in widening the economic gaps – remittances are unequal 5. Rural depopulation – less market force
- 48. Political Impact • Depopulation = lower political representation • Increases in migrants – higher political influenced • Changes in the ethnic composition e.g. Han Chinese migration into Tibet
- 49. Environmental Impact • Further urbanization in developing countries • Leads to deforestation • Changes in the ecology • Pressure on land – resources constraints
- 50. Demographic Impact • Impacts on age structure/ gender composition • Pyramids of rural areas: Losses of young economically active adult • Pyramids of urban areas: More young, economically active adults • Usually more men moving than woman
- 51. Stepped Migration • Occurs – due to the idea of distance decay – not wanting to leave families, culture, ethnicity – also could be due to lack of capital for movements, lack of skills/ connections • Soon – migrants develop skills, connections, confidence and financial capability
- 53. Intra-Urban Movement • Movement within cities – usually in the form of family life cycle • Available housing stocks are important determining factors • There are contrasts between the spatial life cycle of rich and poor • Life cycle/ incomes influence directions, distance and patterns • ALSO – the government’s planning of the housing areas/ associated organization
- 54. Intra urban movement • Wealthy = high mobility • Hence, the more well-off sector of the population tend to have higher mobility • For the lower income groups – choices are more restricted • In MEDCs lower income groups may be concentrated in inner urban areas Movement within urban areas are response to employment, growth of cities, finding better environment, economic changes etc.
- 56. Counter-Urbanization • Caused by the more appealing non-urban lifestyles • Increasing mobility of urbanites: higher incomes • Improvement in transport network • Introduction of commuter communities in rural-urban fringes
- 58. Period explanation • Role of economic/ demographic situations in 1970 when Counter urbanization first appeared • Energy crisis, economic recession, sharp growth in retirees, post war baby booms • Emphasis on urban push factors • Weaken metropolitan growth • See Counter urbanization as temporary
- 59. Regional Restructuring • New organization of production • Increase importance of service industries • Spatial divisions of labor change • Spread of activities toward rural peripheries
- 60. De-concentration • Less technological/ institutional barriers now • Reducing constraints on infrastructures/ technologies in rural areas • Hence many companies/ households felt free to leave urban areas • The improvement have to also be made accessible by the other 2 reasons
- 62. Changes to International Migration • Growth of labor migration/ student migration due to higher mobility – migrations are now more temporary, circular • Spatial impacts have increased with the scale • Gender roles – increase female migrants • Movement is from the weaker to the stronger economy
- 63. Changes to International Migration • Controls have been enforced to prevent illegal immigrations/ security purposes e.g. after 911 • Globalization – increases awareness of opportunities
- 64. Refugees situations • Late 20th to early 21s Century • In Africa and Asia – violent conflicts have broken out • Lead population movement in large scale • Internal displacement and refugees have both become huge issues • In 2015, refugee situation was worse than ever
- 65. Refugees situations - War • Increase in weapons and arms availability • New forms of warfare has impacts that affect even the civilians • Light weapons/ land mines at low price – allow whole population to be armed • Mass eviction/ expulsion in the form of ethnic cleansings e.g. in Rwanda
- 66. Refugees situations • UNHCR (United Nation High Commission for Refugees) • Guarantees security for refugees and asylum seekers • Fund more people forced to uproot from their home – to live nomadic lifestyles
- 67. WAR
- 68. Refugees situations • Natural disasters • Droughts, floods, volcanic eruptions • Soil degradation/ Desertification • Water constraint – e.g. Aral sea • Almost all was the cause of human actions • LEDCs most heavily affected – no capital for prevention
- 69. Refugees situations • Large infrastructure projects may also displace large number of people • The Xayaburi dam in Mekong • The Aswan high dam in Egypt
- 70. Voluntary migration • Large number of voluntary international migrations nowadays are for economic reasons • Tends to be movement from LEDCs to MEDCs • There are also those from MEDCs to LEDCs – may be for lower living cost
- 71. Voluntary migration • Most recent movements – coinciding with global economic recessions are into the OECDs (Organization of economic cooperation and development)
- 72. Voluntary migration • Factors influencing movements • The extent of economic opportunities • Presence of family members/ those of the same ethnic origin • Point of entry
- 73. Socio-Economic • Socio-economic status of migrants in OECDs countries 1. Unemployed compared with nationals/ locals 2. Dirty, dangerous, difficult/dull works 3. Over represented in some industries
- 74. Industries for foreign migrants in OECD • Construction workers • Hospitality/ hotel • Catering • Household services
- 75. Socio-Economic • Value of remittances are very important • Philippines – highest remittance in the world • Some will argue it to be the most essential source of income • ‘Globalization bottom up’ • Helps alleviate poverty • Increases investment/ businesses • Reduces impact of global recession
- 76. Socio-Economic • Remittances – multiplier effect in donor countries • Although: Brain drain from the donor countries – are they well compensated by remittances
- 77. Socio-Economic • Assimilation in receiving countries: racial tension, differences in language, culture • Donor countries: Lost of dynamic population, returned migrants have ideas that may clash with traditional values
- 78. Cultural • Cultural exchange/ globalization • Multi-cultural society • Cultural hybrid • Diaspora population forming ethnic areas in receiving countries • Once again, lost of traditional can be an issue • Changes in ethnicity/ languages
- 79. Political • Migrants have political opinions – tend to be more to the left wing • Movement of migrants will also influence the political importance of areas • When immigrant population reaches a certain size – they may form their own real political union – a representation • Political tension between donor/ receiving nations • Pro-migration agenda of developing nation
- 80. Environmental • May argue that environmental problems (ecological footprints) are increased by movement of migration fro the receiving countries • Increase in resource constraints