BEEE.pptx

EEE-UNIT 2
1
Unit-2-Electronics
Overview of Semiconductors, Diodes and Transistors, Introduction to JFET
and MOSFET. Construction and working of power devices-SCR, BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT -Switching Characteristics of SCR- Types of power
converters- Natural and force commutation, Linear voltage Regulator,
SMPS
Realize the logic expression using basic logic gates, Combinational logic
design-Sum of Product form (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) form,
Minterm and Maxterm, Karnaugh Map (K-Map) representation of logical
functions, Two variables K-Map, Three variables K-Map, Four variables K-
Map. Introduction to FPGA.
Practice on realization of logical expression, combinational circuits, PCB
design, soldering and testing
21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICSENGINEERING

OVERVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTORS
• Depending on their conductivity, materials can be
classified into three types as conductors,
semiconductors and insulators. Conductor is a
good conductor of electricity. Insulator is a poor
conductor of electricity. Semiconductor has its
conductivity lying between these two extremes.
Energy Band of Semiconductor
In terms of energy band shown in Fig., the valence
band is almost filled (partially filled) and
conduction band is almost empty.
2

3
A comparatively smaller electric field (smaller than required for
insulator) is required to push the electrons from the valence band
to conduction band. At low temperatures, the valence band is
completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
Therefore a semiconductor virtually behaves as an insulator at
low temperature. However even at room temperature some
electrons crossover to the conduction band giving conductivity to
the semiconductor. As temperature increases, the number of
electrons crossing over to the conduction band increases and
hence electrical conductivity increases. Hence a semiconductor
has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

4
Classifications of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor: A pure
semiconductor is called intrinsic
semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductor: Due to the poor
conduction at room temperature, the intrinsic
semiconductor, as such, is not useful in the
electronic devices. Hence the current
conduction capability of the intrinsic
semiconductor should be increased. This can
be achieved by adding a small amount of
impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor, so that
it becomes impurity semiconductor or extrinsic
semiconductor. This process of adding impurity
is known as doping.

5
N-type Semiconductor: A small amount of pentavalent
impurities such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorus is
added to the pure semiconductor (germanium or silicon
crystal) to get N-type semiconductor. Thus, the addition
of pentavalent impurity (antimony) increases the number
of electrons in the conduction band thereby increasing
the conductivity of N-type semiconductor. As a result of
doping, the number of free electrons far exceeds the
number of holes in an N-type semiconductor. So electrons
are called majority carriers and holes are called minority
carriers
P-type Semiconductor: A small amount of trivalent
impurities such as aluminium or boron is added to the
pure semiconductor to get the P-type semiconductor. The
number of holes is very much greater than the number of
free electrons in a P-type material, holes are termed as
majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.

6
THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by P-
type impurity and the other half is doped by N-type impurity,
a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or
zones is called PN junction. As shown in Fig., the N-type
material has high concentration of free electrons while P-type
material has high concentration of holes. Therefore at the
junction there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse
over to the P-side and holes to the N-side. This process is
called diffusion.

7
As the free electrons move across the junction from N-type to P-
type, the donor ions become positively charged. Hence a positive
charge is built. on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons
that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling
in the holes. Therefore a net negative charge is established on the
P-side of the junction. This net negative charge on the P-side
prevents further diffusion of electrons into the P-side. Similarly,
the net positive charge on the N-side repels the holes crossing from
P-side to N-side. Thus a barrier is set up near the junction which
prevents further movement of charge carriers, i.e. electrons and
holes. This is called potential barrier or junction barrier V0. V0 is
0.3 V for germanium and 0.72 V for silicon. The electrostatic field
across the junction caused by the positively charged N-type region
tends to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively
charged P-type region tends to drive the electrons away from the
junction. Thus the junction region is depleted to mobile charge
carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer.

8
Under Forward Bias Condition
When positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-type and negative terminal to the N-type of the
PN junction diode, the bias applied is known as
forward bias. Under the forward bias condition, the
applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type
region so that the holes move towards the junction and
the applied negative potential repels the electrons in
the N-type region and the electrons move towards the
junction. Eventually when the applied potential is more
than the internal barrier potential, the depletion region
and internal potential barrier disappear.

9
V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Forward Bias
For VF > V0, the potential barrier at the junction
completely disappears and hence, the holes cross the
junction from P-type to N-type and the electrons cross
the junction in the opposite direction, resulting in
relatively large current flow in the external circuit.

10
Under Reverse Bias Condition
When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-type and positive terminal of the battery is connected
to the N-type of the PN junction, the bias applied is known
as reverse bias. Under applied reverse bias, holes which
form the majority carriers of the P-side move towards the
negative terminal of the battery and electrons which form
the majority carrier of the N-side are attracted towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Hence the width of the
depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers
increases. Thus the electric field produced by applied
reverse bias, is in the same direction as the electric field of
the potential barrier. Hence, the resultant potential barrier
is increased, which prevents the flow of majority carriers in
both directions. Therefore, theoretically no current should
flow in the external circuit. But in practice, a very small
current of the order of a few microamperes flows under
reverse bias.

11
V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Reverse Bias
For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type
moving towards the positive terminal of the battery acquire
sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valence
electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal. These newly
liberated electrons, in turn, acquire sufficient energy to dislodge
other parent electrons. Thus, a large number of free electrons are
formed which is commonly called as an avalanche of free
electrons. This leads to the breakdown of the junction leading to
very large reverse current. The reverse voltage at which the
junction breakdown occurs is known as breakdown voltage.

13
APPLICATIONS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
RECTIFIERS, CLIPPERS, CLAMPERS ect..
RECTIFIERS-Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for
converting ac voltage into dc voltage
Half-wave Rectifier
It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using only one half
of the applied ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during one half
of the ac cycle only. Figure shows the basic circuit and waveforms of a
half wave rectifier.

18
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR [BJT]
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal
semiconductor device in which the operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the
name Bipolar. It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers,
satellites and other modern communication systems.

19
TRANSISTOR BIASING
Usually the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base
junction is reverse biased. Due to the forward bias on the emitter-
base junction an emitter current flows through the base into the
collector. Though, the collector-base junction is reverse biased, almost
the entire emitter current flows through the collector circuit.

46
1-AC to DC Converters
1A-Diode Rectifiers: This rectifier circuit changes applied ac input voltage into a fixed dc
voltage. Either a single-phase or three-phase ac signal is applied at the input. These are
mainly used in electric traction and in electrochemical processes like electroplating along
with in battery charging and power supply. These are also used in welding
and UPS related services.
1B-Phase Controlled Rectifiers: Unlike diode rectifiers, phase-controlled rectifiers are
designed to convert a fixed value of ac signal voltage into a variable dc voltage. Here line
voltage operates the rectifier hence these are sometimes known as line commutated ac
to dc converters. Similar to diode rectifiers, here also the applied ac signal can be a
single-phase or three-phase ac signal. Its major applications are in dc drives, HVDC
systems, compensators, metallurgical and chemical industries as well as in excitation
systems for synchronous machines.
2-DC to DC Converters
The converters that convert the dc signal of fixed frequency present at the input into a
variable dc signal at the output are also known as choppers. Here the achieved output
dc voltage may have a different amplitude than the source voltage. Generally, power
transistors, MOSFETs, and thyristors are the semiconductor devices used for their
fabrication. The output is controlled by a low power signal that controls these
semiconductor devices from a control unit.

47
Here forced commutation is required to turn off the semiconductor device. Generally, in low
power circuits power transistors are used while in high power circuits thyristors are used.
Choppers are classified on the basis of the type of commutation applied to them and on the
basis of the direction of power flow. Some major uses of choppers are in dc drives, SMPS,
subway cars, electric traction, trolley trucks, vehicles powered by battery, etc.
3-DC to AC Converters
The devices that are designed to convert the dc signal into ac signal are known as inverters.
The applied input is a fixed dc voltage that can be obtained from batteries but the output
obtained is variable ac voltage. The voltage and frequency of the signal obtained are of
variable nature. Here the semiconductor device i.e., the thyristor is turned off by using either
line, load, or forced commutation.
Thus, it can be said that by the use of inverters, a fixed dc voltage is changed into an ac
voltage of variable frequency. Generally, the semiconductor devices used for its fabrication
are power transistors, MOSFETs, IGBT, GTO, thyristors, ect
Inverters mainly find applications in induction motor and synchronous motor drives along with
UPS, aircraft, and space power supplies. In high voltage dc transmission system, induction
heating supplies as well as low power systems of mobile nature like flashlight discharge
system in photography camera to very high power industrial system.
Like choppers, in inverters also conventional thyristors are used in high power applications
and power transistors are used in low power applications

48
4-AC to AC Converters
An ac to ac converter is designed to change the ac signal of fixed frequency into a variable
ac output voltage.
There are two classifications of ac to ac converters which are as follows:
4A-Cycloconverters: A cycloconverter is a device used for changing ac supply of fixed
voltage and single frequency into an ac output voltage of variable voltage as well as different
frequency. However, here the obtained variable ac signal frequency is lower than the
frequency of the applied ac input signal. It adopts single-stage conversion. Generally, line
commutation is mostly used in cycloconverters however forced or load commutated
cycloconverters are also used in various applications.
These mainly find applications in slow-speed large AC traction drives such as a rotary kiln,
multi MW ac motor drives, etc.
4B-AC Voltage Controllers (AC voltage regulators): The converters designed to change
the applied ac signal of fixed voltage into a variable ac voltage signal of the same frequency
as that of input. For the operation of these controllers, two thyristors in an antiparallel
arrangement are used. Line commutation is used for turning off both the devices. It offers the
controlling of the output voltage by changing the firing angle delay.
The major applications of ac voltage controllers are in lighting control, electronic tap
changers, speed control of large fans and pumps as well.

49
Commutation
Commutation is the process of turning off a conducting thyristor. There are two
methods for commutation viz. natural commutation and forced commutation.
Natural Commutation
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself.
If the SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the
anode current naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply).
As the current in the circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied
immediately across the SCR (due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF
the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line
Commutation or Class F Commutation. This commutation is possible with line
commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators
because the supply is the AC source in all these converters.

50
Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn
OFF the SCR. In such circuits, forward current must be forced to
zero with an external circuit (known as Commutating Circuit) to
commutate the SCR. Hence the name, Forced Commutation.
This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors
and capacitors and they are called Commutating Components.
These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage
across the SCR that immediately bring the current in the SCR to
zero.
Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR
and the arrangement of the commutating components, Forced
Commutation is classified into different types. They are:
Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class C – Complementary Commutation
Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
Class E – Pulse Commutation
This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter
circuits.

51
Linear Voltage Regulator
Electronic systems usually receive a power-supply voltage that
is higher than the voltage required by the system’s circuitry. For
example, a 9 V battery might be used to power an amplifier that needs
an input range of 0 to 5 V, In such case, we need to regulate the input
power using a component that accepts a higher voltage and produces a
lower voltage.One very common way to achieve this type of regulation is
to incorporate a linear voltage regulator.
The simplest regulators are called 3-pin regulators, which
output a stable fixed voltage just by inserting an input capacitor (CIN)
between the VIN and the GND pins, and an output capacitor (COUT)
between the VOUT and the GND pins.
The figure below illustrates that the controlling circuit
supervises the output voltage and regulates the resistance value of the
variable resistor so that the IC can output the set fixed voltage. For
instance, if the input voltage (VIN) is fixed, a linear regulator can
maintain a stable output voltage by keeping the ratio between the
variable resistance value and the load resistance value fixed according
to the changing rate of the load resistance value. The input voltage is
divided by the two resistors, so linear regulators generate a lower
output voltage than their input voltage.

52
The difference between the higher input voltage and lower output
voltage will generate heat which is called waste heat. The current
flowing inside the load resistor goes on to flow to the variable resistor,
where the electricity is consumed with some heat generated.

53
SMPS-Switched Mode Power Supply [SMPS]
Various electrical and electronic loads are provided power using
batteries. But batteries do not provide regulated power as they offer
voltages of value either very high or very low. So, to obtain regulated dc
output, SMPS is used.
Unlike linear power supply, which uses the standard linear
method of voltage regulation, a switch mode power supply is a device that
performs voltage regulation of unregulated signal by using semiconductor
switching methods. It is considered to be highly efficient because it
lessens power consumption thereby showing a decrease in the amount of
heat dissipated. Thus, has replaced traditional linear power supply units.
SMPS includes a switching transistor (power MOSFET) for the
purpose of voltage regulation. During operation, the transistor switches
between on state and off state in a way that when it is on, it fully conducts
current with the negligible voltage drop across it. While when it is off, it
tries to completely block the flow of current. Thus, switching between on
state (saturated) and off state (cut-off) occurs at high frequency, and in
this way, the device acts as an ideal switch.
It is to be noted here that if the transformer operates at high
frequency, so the device size is reduced. Hence, the overall size of the
SMPS is small with less weight which is another advantage over linear
power supplies.

54
Block Diagram and Working of SMPS
The major components that constitute SMPS are as follows:
1. Input rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter)
2. High-frequency switch (Power transistor or MOSFET)
3. Power transformer
4. Output rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter)
5. Control circuit (comparator and pulse width modulator)
Initially, the unregulated ac input signal from the source is
provided to the input rectifier and filter circuit. Here the ac input signal
is rectified to generate a dc signal and further smoothened to remove
high-frequency noise component from it. The dc output (still in
unregulated form) is fed to the power transistor that acts as a high-
frequency switch.

55
Here the dc signal undergoes chopping (switching). This circuit
acts as an ideal switch i.e., when the power transistor (chopper circuit) is
in on state, current passes through it with negligible voltage drop, and dc
signal is obtained at the output terminal of the transistor. However,
under the off state of the power transistor, no current passes through it
and leading to cause maximal voltage drop within it. Thus, at the output
side, no voltage will be present.
Hence, according to the switching action of the power transistor
dc voltage will be obtained at its output side. The chopping frequency
plays a crucial role in maintaining the desired dc voltage level.
The obtained dc signal at the output of the chopper circuit is then fed to
the primary winding of the high-frequency power transformer. Here the
step-down transformer converts the high voltage signal into a low voltage
level which is further provided as input to the output rectifier and filter
unit. This simply filters out the unwanted residuals from the signal in
order to provide a regulated dc signal as the output.
The control circuitry present here acts as the feedback circuit for
the complete unit. This involves a comparator along with a pulse width
modulator (PWM). The dc output from the rectifier and filter is fed to the
control circuit where the error amplifier which acts as a comparator,
compares the obtained dc voltage with the reference value.

56
If the dc output is greater than the reference value then the
chopping frequency is to be decreased. The decrease in chopping
frequency will reduce the output power and so the dc output voltage.
However, if the dc output is less than the reference value then the
chopping frequency is increased. When chopping frequency is raised then
the dc output voltage will get increased.
The pulse width modulator in the above circuit is responsible for
generating a fixed frequency pulse width modulated waveform whose
duty cycle controls the chopping frequency.
Basically, the duty ratio is the ratio of on-time to the overall
cycle time (i.e., on + off) time. Hence, by making necessary adjustments
in the width of the pulses, the chopping frequency gets adjusted hence,
regulated dc output can be obtained.
Advantages
1. It is highly efficient than linear power supplies. Typically, the
efficiency of SMPS lies between 60% – 95%.
2. Due to the high-frequency operation of the device, the overall size is
small and less bulky. Thus, is compact.
3. It is inexpensive because heat dissipation is less.
4. The obtained output voltage can be more or less than the supply
input.

57
Disadvantages
1. The transient spike generation due to switching action is one of the
major issues. This may lead to cause RF interference thus, isolation
is mandatory.
2. The circuit is complex. Also, voltage regulation (controlling) is tricky.
3. Proper filtration is necessary to deal with noise and spikes.
Applications of SMPS
The devices invented under the latest technologies require a
highly efficient power supply which is offered by SMPS. Thus, it finds
applications in various power amplifiers, personal computers, security
and railway systems, television sets, motor drives, etc.

60
Realization [Implementation] of logic expression [Boolean Function ] using basic logic
gates

62
SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] AND PRODUCT OF SUMS
[POS]
Logical functions (Boolean expression) are generally
expressed in terms of logical variables (inputs) in
following forms. (Each input variable can have the
value, either 0 or 1 only)
•SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] Ex: AB’+ BC+C’D
•PRODUCT OF SUMS [POS] Ex: (A’+B’) (B’+C) (C’+D)
MINTERMS
A product term containing all the inputs of the
functions in either complemented or uncomplemented
form is called MINTERMS.
Let us consider 3 variable (input) function. It has
23 all possible combinations. [A ‘n’ variable (input)
function has 2n all possible combinations]. Let the
inputs are A, B, C and output is Y.

64
•In minterms, 0 are assigned with bar letter and
1 are assigned with unbar letter.
•Within the row, all are multiplied (Product)
•Choose only the output 1.
•Add the minterms which having 1 output.
•In this example, we get Y= A’BC’ + A’BC+ AB’C’+
ABC’. This expression is called canonical SOP
form. [Standard SOP form]
•Each input is assigned with it equivalent
decimal value. In the truth table, only the output
Y= 1 is chosen, it corresponding input’s decimal
values are stated as below.
Y= ∑m (2,3,4,6)

65
MAXTERMS
A sum term containing all the inputs of the functions in
either complemented or uncomplemented form is called
MAXTERMS. Let us consider the same truth table.

66
•In maxterms, 1 are assigned with bar letter and
0 are assigned with unbar letter.
•Within the row, all are summed (Added)
•Choose only the output 0.
•Product the maxterms which having 0 output.
•In this example, we get Y= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’)
(A’+B+C’) (A’+B’+C’). This expression is called
canonical POS form. [Standard POS form]
•Each input is assigned with it equivalent decimal
value. In the truth table, only the output Y= 0 is
chosen, it corresponding input’s decimal values
are stated as below.
Y= ∏M (0,1,5,7)
Note: Minterms and Maxterms are complement
with each other.

67
1. For the Boolean function given below, obtain the (i)
canonical SOP form (ii) canonical POS form.
Y(A,B,C)= A+B’C
= AXX+ XB’C
= AB’C’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B’C+ AB’C
[Remove the common term; Since A+A=A ]
Y= AB’C’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B’C [Canonical
SOP form]
100 101 110 111 001
(m4 m5 m6 m7 m1)
Y= ∑m (1,4,5,6,7)
Y= ∏M (0,2,3) [ Minterms and Maxterms are
complement with each other]
M0 M2 M3
000 010 011
Y= (A+B+C) (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) [Canonical POS form]

68
If the number of input variables is more than 2,
its very difficult to minimize the Boolean function by
Boolean algebra. Karnaugh maps/ K map overcomes
this difficulty.
Karnaugh maps/ K map
•A visual way to simplify logic expressions
•It gives the most simplified form of the expression
•K-Maps are a graphical technique used to simplify a
logic equation.
•K-Maps can be used for any number of input
variables, BUT are only practical for two, three, and
four variables
Karnaugh maps/ K-map

70
Procedure to minimize Boolean expression by K-map:
1. We have to cheek, number of variables (Inputs).
(i)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤3, it
is 2 variable function.
(ii)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤7,
it is 3 variable function.
(iii)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤15,
it is 4 variable function.
Note: Some times, in the question itself, inputs will be given.
Ex: Y(A,B,C)=∑(0,4,5,7)
2. Check the given question is Minterms or Maxterms. If ∑ is
given, it is Minterms. In K-map, for the given decimal
location, we have to enter 1. In remaining location, we have
to enter 0.
If ∏ is given, it is Maxterms. In K-map, for the given decimal
location, we have to enter 0. In remaining location, we have
to enter 1.
3. Draw the K-map and fill it. (use step 1 & 2)

71
4 (a) Solution Procedure for SOP method
(i) We have box ALL the 1.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are
minimization problem, we have chose larger box.
(iii) The number of 1’s inside the box must be 2n. [ie we have
to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have to try boxing 8, if not
possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have to try
boxing 2, if not possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must
be square or rectangular. ie
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged input.
For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom to
top. The unchanged input within the box should be product.
The product of one box should be sum with next box.[In
input, 0 are assigned with bar letter and 1 are assigned with
unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

72
4 (b) Solution Procedure for POS method
(i) We have box ALL the 0.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are
minimization problem, we have chose larger box.
(iii) The number of 0’s inside the box must be 2n. [ie we have
to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have to try boxing 8, if not
possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have to try
boxing 2, if not possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must
be square or rectangular. ie
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged inputs.
For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom to
top. The unchanged input within the box should be summed.
The sum of one box should be product with next box.[In
input, 1 are assigned with bar letter and 0 are assigned with
unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

76
Three-Variable K-Map : Examples

79
Four-Variable K-Maps Examples

80
Four-Variable K-Maps Examples

81
3,4-Variable K-Maps Examples

83
3,4-Variable K-Maps Examples [POS]

FPGA
• A Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is an
integrated circuit that can be configured by the user
to emulate any digital circuit as long as there are
enough resources.
• The FPGA configuration is generally specified using
a hardware description language (HDL)
• An FPGA can be seen as an array of Configurable
Logic Blocks (CLBs) connected through
programmable interconnect (Switch Boxes).
84

FPGA structure
CLB SB
SB SB
CLB
SB
CLB SB CLB
Configurable Logic Blocks
Interconnection Network
I/O Signals (Pins)
85

Simplified CLB Structure
CLB SB
SB SB
CLB
SB
CLB SB CLB
Configurable Logic Blocks
Interconnection Network
I/O Signals (Pins)
Look-Up
Table
(LUT)
Q
Q
SET
CLR
D
MUX
86

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