Design mannual for small scale irrigation scheme book

This “Design Manual for Small Scale Irrigation Scheme” is approved by the Government of Nepal (Ministry
Level) on 2071-03-23
Published by:
Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR)
In association with:
HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal
Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI)
Technical Team:
Mr. Kumar Thapa, Senior Divisional Engineer/ DoLIDAR
Mr. Raju Shrestha, Engineer/ DoLIDAR
Mr. Susan Shakya, Technical Coordinator/ LILI- HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal
This Publication is available at:
Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR)
Shree Mahal Pulchowk Lalitpur, Nepal
Contact Phone: 977-1-5555001, 5555362, 5543197
Fax: 977-1-5555724
Email: contact@dolidar.gov.np ; dg@dolidar.gov.np

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Concept of Irrigation 1
1.1.1 Surface Irrigation 1
1.1.2 Sub-surface Irrigation 1
1.1.3 Sprinkle Irrigation 1
1.1.4 Sources of Irrigation 2
1.2 Basic Terms Used In Small Scale Irrigation 2
1.3 Scope of the Manual 3
2. Project Study and Survey 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Identification Study 5
2.2.1 Introduction 5
2.2.2 Desk study 6
2.2.3 Field visit 6
2.2.4 Analysis and Reporting 6
2.3 Feasibility study 7
2.3.1 Introduction 7
2.3.2 Desk study 7
2.3.3 Field Survey Work 7
2.3.4 Field data analysis 8
2.4 Topographical Survey 9
2.5 Hydrological survey 10
2.6 Socio-economic Survey 10
2.7 Agricultural Survey 10
3. Hydrological Analysis and Water Requirement Assessment 13
3.1 Maximum Design discharge 13
3.2 Flood Frequency Analysis 13
3.3 Regional Analysis 13
3.3.1 Sharma and Adhikari Method 14
3.3.2 Rational Method 14
3.4 Water Availability for Irrigation 14
3.4.1 General 14
3.4.2 Frequency Analysis 15
3.4.3 MIP Method 15

3.5 Discharge Measurement 15
3.5.1 General 15
3.5.2 Float method 16
3.5.3 Bucket and Watch method 17
3.5.4 Current Meter 17
3.6 Water Requirement Assessment 17
3.6.1 Crop Water Requirements 17
3.6.2 Irrigation Water Duty 18
4. Diversion Headworks and Intakes 19
4.1 Selection of Site for Headwork or Intake 19
4.2 Types of Intake 20
4.3 Design of Simple Side Intake 20
4.4 Bottom Intake 21
4.4.1 General 21
4.5 Diversion Weir 22
4.5.1 General 22
4.5.2 Crest Level of Weir and Under-sluice 22
4.5.3 Length of Weir and Afflux 23
4.5.4 Effect of Retrogression 23
4.5.5 Hydraulic Jump 23
4.6 Gabion Weir 24
4.6.1 Gabion weir 24
5. Canal Design 27
5.1 Design Concept 27
5.2 Design of Unlined Canals 27
5.2.1 Design Procedure 27
5.2.2 Side Slopes 28
5.2.3 Permissible Velocity 28
5.2.4 Bed Width to Depth Ratio 29
5.2.5 Canal Slope 29
5.2.6 Free Board 30
5.2.7 Minimum Radius of Curvature 30
5.2.8 Design Example of Unlined Canal 30
5.3 Lining of Canals 31
5.3.1 Type of Canal Lining 31

5.3.2 Design Concept of Lined Canal 31
5.3.3 Design Procedure of Lined Canal 32
5.3.4 Design Example of Lined Canal 32
5.4 Design of Covered Canals 33
5.4.1 Design Concept 33
5.4.2 Design of Piped Canal 33
5.4.3 Design Examples of Piped Canal 34
6. Sediment Control Structures 37
6.1 Gravel Traps 37
6.2 Sand Traps 38
6.2.1 General Configuration 38
6.2.2 Sand Trap Design 39
7. Canal Structures 43
7.1 Head Regulator 43
7.2 Cross Regulator 43
7.3 Proportional Divider 43
7.4 Outlets 44
7.4.1 Design of Pipe Outlet 44
7.5 Drop Structures 44
7.6 Escape Structure 45
7.7 Bridges and Culverts 46
7.8 Retaining Wall 47
7.8.1 General 47
7.8.2 Design Concept of Dry and Gabion Retaining Wall 47
7.8.3 Design Procedure of Masonry and Concrete Retaining Wall 47
8. Cross Drainage Structures 51
8.1 Type of Cross-Drainage Structure 51
8.2 Design Considerations 51
8.2.1 Design Discharge 51
8.2.2 Waterway of the Drain 51
8.2.3 Contraction and Expansion of Waterway 51
8.2.4 Head Loss through Structure 51
8.3 Design Concept of Aqueduct 52
8.4 Design Concept of Superpassage 53
8.5 Design Concept of Canal Siphon 53

8.6 Design Concept of HDP Pipe Crossing 54
8.7 Design Example of HDP Pipe Crossing 56
9. Shallow Tube Well Irrigation 57
9.1 Groundwater Potential in Nepal 57
9.2 Design concept 58
9.3 Suggested Design Criteria 59
9.4 Design Procedure of STW 59
9.5 STW Design Example 60
9.5.1 Design Data 60
9.5.2 Assumptions Made 60
9.5.3 STW Planning 60
9.5.4 Tube-well Design 60
9.5.5 Pump and Motor Design 61
9.5.6 Distribution System 61
10. Micro Irrigation 63
10.1 Introduction 63
10.2 Pond Irrigation 63
10.2.1 Design Concept 63
10.2.2 Design Example of Pond Irrigation 64
10.3 Sprinkle Irrigation 64
10.3.1 Sprinkle System Components 64
10.3.2 Micro Sprinkle in Nepal 65
10.4 Drip Irrigation 66
10.4.1 Components of Drip System 66
10.4.2 Simple Drip System in Nepal 67
10.5 Small Scale Lift Irrigation 68
10.5.1 General 68
10.5.2 Diesel or petrol engine pumps 69
10.5.3 Hydraulic Ram 70
10.5.4 Treadle Pump 71
11. Agriculture Benefit Assessment 73
11.2 Benefit Matrix Approach 73
11.3 Components of Benefit Matrix 73
11.3.1 Command Area 73

11.3.2 Crop Yields 73
11.3.3 Agriculture Inputs 73
11.3.4 Economic Prices 74
11.4 Procedure of Benefit Assessment 74
11.4.1 Total Net Agricultural Returns "Without Project" 74
11.4.2 Total Net Agricultural Returns "With Project" 74
12. Project Cost Estimate 77
12.2 Derivation of Unit Rates 77
12.3 Bill of Quantities and Abstract of Costs 79
13. Economic Analysis 81
13.2 Economic Indicators 81
13.3 Basic Assumptions 81
Annex: 1 83
Annex: 2 89
Annex: 3 95
Annex: 4 101
Annex: 5 102
Typical Drawings Sample 103

DoLIDAR/MoFALD -Nepal
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB : Asian Development Bank
CA : Catchment Area
CCA : Cultural Command Area
CWR : Crop Water Requirement
DDC : District Development Committee
DHM : Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
DOI : Department of Irrigation
DOLIDAR : Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads
DTO : District Technical Office
EIRR : Economic Internal Rate of Return
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization
FM : Frequency Modulus
FMIS : Farmer Managed Irrigation System
GCA : Gross Command Area
GPS : Global Positioning System
HDP : High Density Polythene
LILI : Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement
MOA : Ministry of Agriculture
MOFALD : Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development
NCWR : Net Crop Water Requirement
O&M : Operation and Maintenance
PDSP : Planning and Design Strengthening Project
SDC : Swiss Development Cooperation
STW : Shallow Tube Well
VDC : Village Development Committee
WB : World Bank
WECS : Water and Energy Commission Secretariat
WUA : Water Users Association

Chapter-1
1. Introduction
1.1 Concept of Irrigation
Irrigation is the application of water to the farm land for the purpose of producing crops whenever and
wherever the rainfall is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the crops. Irrigation system can be
classified according to size, source of water, technology, management type etc. In-terms of management
there are three broad types of irrigation systems are practiced in Nepal i.e. government managed,
farmer managed, and jointly managed system. However basically almost all small scale irrigation schemes
are under farmer managed system.
There are basically three types of water application technologies for irrigation:
· Application of water at the surface of the field-Surface irrigation;
· Application of water below the surface of the field-Sub-surface irrigation and
· Application of water from above the field or in the form of rain- Sprinkle irrigation
1.1.1 Surface Irrigation
In this system water is applied at the surface of the fields. This is the oldest and most commonly practiced
system of irrigation. Surface irrigation methods are categorized in the main groups:
· Free flooding irrigation,
· Boarder strip flooding irrigation, and
· Furrow irrigation
In free flooding field plots are divided into small plots nearly leveled and water is applied at higher level
to allow free flooding. Irrigation of paddy fields is the example of free flooding irrigation.
In boarder strip flooding the land is divided into number of strips. The size of strip depends upon the
technology used for mechanization. Shorter and narrower strips are more efficient. Irrigation of wheat
fields and mechanized paddy fields are the examples of this irrigation method.
In furrow irrigation furrows are constructed at certain intervals and crops are planted in rows. The length
and width of furrow depends upon the field condition and the technology used. Irrigation of potato
and vegetables are the examples of furrow irrigation.
1.1.2 Sub-surface Irrigation
In this type of irrigation water is applied at the roots of the plants. This method is economical in water
utilization as evaporation losses are minimal. But it has limited application due to technological
constraints and economic point of view. This type of irrigation is suitable for water scarce area and for
growing cash crops. Drip or trickle irrigation is being practiced in Nepal for growing vegetable crops in
small holder farmers.
1.1.3 Sprinkle Irrigation
In this type of irrigation water is applied from above the surface of the field in the form of rain or spray.
It is mechanical form of irrigation and needs pressure flow for spraying water. It is widely used in
developed countries for watering of gardens and lawns. In Nepal sprinkle irrigation has been practicing
in tea gardens since long. It is also being used for growing vegetable crops in water scarce area and in
areas of porous soil.
Page 1

DoLIDAR/MoFALD -NepalPage 2
1.1.4 Sources of Irrigation
The main sources of water supply for irrigation are:
· Normal flow of rivers, lakes, spring sources;
· Stored flood water in reservoirs or rainfall stored in tanks; and
· Wells including tube wells
Irrigation water is generally diverted from source to the field by means of a conveyance system. The
design of small scale irrigation covers water acquisition structure, conveyance system, storage system,
and application method.
1.2 Basic Terms Used In Small Scale Irrigation
Afflux : the rise of water level on the u/s of the weir or barrage after its construction,
Alignment : center line of the canal to be followed for excavation or profiling,
Apron : floor to protect the surface from erosion,
Aqueduct : cross drainage structure made over drainage to pass the canal water,
Barrage : structure across the river with gates to raise the water level for irrigation canals,
Bench mark : geodetic reference point taken from national survey of the country,
Breast wall : vertical wall immediately above the face of orifice or gate,
Catchment area: area from which rainfall flows into a drainage line,
Chute : high velocity conduit for conveying water,
Command area : area which can be irrigated or cultivated,
Cultural command area (CCA): total area which can be cultivated,
Gross command area (GCA): total area which can be economically irrigated by irrigation system,
Cropping intensity: percentage of irrigated area cropped within the command area in a year,
Cropping pattern: crop planting sequence and crop mix throughout a year,
Cross drainage works: structure necessary to cross the irrigation canal across the natural drainage,
Cut-off : wall constructed below the floor of the structure to reduce percolation,
Desilting basin : structure for creating pool of water to settle down suspended sediments,
Drop : structure for dropping the flow of the canal to dissipate its surplus energy,
Embankment : earthwork raised above the natural ground to protect flood water,
Free board : margin between a canal bank and full supply level,
Guide bank : training bank constructed at the site of bridge or barrage to guide the river,
Head regulator : control structure constructed at the head of the off-take canal,
Headwork : combination of structures constructed at the diversion point of the river,
Hydrograph : graph showing the stage, flow of water with respect to time,
Intake : structure to divert water from the source to the canal system,
Lining : method of sealing the section of canal to prevent seepage,
Main canal : canal that takes off water from the headwork or from the intake,
Marginal bund : embankment constructed along the river at a short distance from the margin,
Off-take : structure to take off the water from parent canal to a relatively small canal,
Percolation : flow of water in sub-soil due to the force of gravity or pressure head,
Pier : intermediate support of the bridge or culvert,
Pitching : covering of the sloping surface with stone, concrete blocks, bricks, etc,
Regime : state of the river flowing in non-scouring and no-silting condition,
Retaining wall : vertical wall to retain the soil mass behind it,
Runoff : part of rainfall that reaches the stream, drain from the catchment,

DoLIDAR/MoFALD -Nepal Page 3
Scour : removal of material from the bed of the channel by flowing water,
Sediment : non-floating material transported by water (sand, silt, gravel and clay),
Seepage : percolation of water into the soil underneath the structure,
Side slope : sloping distance of a canal section usually measured in a ratio,
Silt : water-borne sediment consisting of fine earth, sand or mud,
Siphon : closed inverted conduit for cross-drainage structure,
Sluice : conduit for carrying water at high velocity,
Spillway : passage for the flow of surplus water in a weir or conduit,
Stilling basin : structure for creating pool of water to disseminate the surplus energy of water,
Super-passage : structure over the canal to bypass the drainage flow,
Tail-water : water just downstream of the structure,
Uplift : upward pressure of water on the base of structure,
Waterway : distance required for flowing water, e.g. Lacey’s waterway,
Weep-holes : horizontal holes on the walls to allow flow of seepage water behind it,
Weir : barrier built across the river to raise the water level upstream,
Wing wall : splayed extension of an abutment wall of the culvert,
1.3 Scope of the Manual
Several reference books and manuals are available for planning and design of irrigation schemes. Most
of these references focus on large and medium irrigation schemes. The design of small irrigation schemes
is specific with respect to its size and nature. Based on the experience of planning, designing and
implementing small scale irrigation schemes by various organizations, it is high time to focus on the
design of small scale irrigation. In this aspect this manual tries to address the following scope of work:
· Review available design manuals and design guidelines and identify various types of possible
components/structures, which are normally required for small irrigation schemes;
· Prepare of stepwise procedures for the design of small irrigation canals and associated
structures;
· Prepare acceptable standard design manual of small scale irrigation schemes with necessary
drawings.

Chapter-2
2. Project Study and Survey
2.1 Introduction
Study and survey is the basic requirement of any engineering project. The success and failure of the
project implementation depends on the accuracy its study and survey. In irrigation projects the major
studies carried out for project implementation are:
· Identification study,
· Pre-feasibility study,
· Feasibility study, and
· Detailed study
For small scale irrigation schemes it may be sufficient to carry out two levels of the study:
· Identification study, and
· Detail Feasibility study
Survey work is an integral part of the scheme study and is carried out in all stages of the study. The
magnitude and accuracy of the survey work depends on the stage of the study and its accuracy to be
needed. The principal types of survey required for small scale irrigation schemes are:
· Topographical survey,
· Engineering survey,
· Hydrological survey,
· Socio-economic survey,
· Agricultural survey
This chapter deals with the requirements of the study and survey for the implementation of small scale
irrigation schemes.
2.2 Identification Study
2.2.1 Introduction
The identification of the scheme is the very first step of project implementation process. The district
level offices (District Technical Office) should disseminate the information about the project, its plans,
procedures and requirements for implementation of the project through meetings with VDCs, DDCs,
and local FM to the farmers of the district.
Prior to start of identification study, the request from the farmers should be reviewed to establish
whether they fulfill the minimum set requirements. The criteria for selection of scheme for identification
should be prepared by DTO based on its principles and objectives. The criteria for the selection of the
project for identification may be:
· At least two-third of the beneficiary households should sign the project request form;
· There are no potential water right disputes;
· The beneficiaries commit to take future O&M responsibilities;
· Sufficient water is available;
After the very first initial screening identification study of the project need to be processed. Engineering
and socio-agricultural staff should visit the proposed project site and assess whether the project should
be carried on the feasibility study or rejected. The project identification study is carried out in three
steps:
· Desk study

· Field visit (Walkthrough survey)
· Analysis and reporting
2.2.2 Desk study
At this step the project location should be identified on the topographic maps (1:50,000/1:25,000 scale).
The team should collect and review the demand form/previous reports/study/information related to
the project.
2.2.3 Field visit
After desk study, message should be sent to the farmers before the field visit informing them about the
tentative date of visit. The tools and equipment to be taken on the field visit may be:
· Copy of project request form;
· Project identification questionnaire;
· Topographical maps;
· Note books and necessary stationary;
· GPS;
· Stop watch;
· Calculator;
· Camera;
· 3 m long measuring tape
2.2.4 Analysis and Reporting
Based on the data and information collected during the field visit the team needs to analysis the project
findings and finalize the identification study. The analysis should be based on technical, economical and
social aspects of project implementation. The analysis may cover the following aspects:
· Length of main canal;
· Size and type of command area (terrace/plain);
· Water right problems;
· Type of soil;
· Major technical difficulties (cross drainage/landslide/unstable zones);
· Poor farmer’s presence;
· Farmer’s interest
Based on the analysis the team has to prepare a report stating the project recommendation for further
actions. The recommendation may be based on:
· Genuineness of demands;
· Command area;
· No technical complication;
· Year round irrigation water availability and no water dispute;
· Potential for increased agriculture production;
· No environmental adverse effect;
· Rehabilitation schemes/ schemes requiring relatively minor improvements;

2.3 Feasibility study
2.3.1 Introduction
The feasibility study is basis for project implementation and is carried out by a team of experts having
engineering, agriculture, and socio-economic professionals. This study normally forms the basis of
financing by external funding agencies or by the Government. The study assesses the technical feasibility,
economical viability and institutional suitability of the project implementation. The feasibility study is
carried out in the following steps:
· Desk study
· Field survey work
· Field data analysis
· Outline design
· Cost estimate
· Economic analysis
· Project reporting and recommendation
2.3.2 Desk study
The desk study is a review of the work carried out at the project identification stage. This study needs
to see generally two aspects.
· List of outstanding matters to be studied, and
· Any possible scheme alternatives
There may be several outstanding issues not touched during previous studies, which should be addressed
during feasibility study. The scheme alternatives need to be reviewed in the feasibility study, which may
include the following:
For new schemes:
· Alternative water sources from different rivers, pumped supply, ground water, supplementary
rivers, etc
· Alternative intake site on one river
· Alternative canal alignment
For rehabilitation schemes:
· Extension of command area
· Combining several schemes
· Revised canal alignment
· Revised intake site
2.3.3 Field Survey Work
The field survey work may differ slightly based on the type of the scheme whether it is new
or rehabilitation. The following are the main activities to be carried out during the field survey work:
· Cutting a trace along the canal line for new scheme
· Intake site survey
· Discharge measurement
· Canal alignment survey
· Long section
· Work inventory
· Major structure site survey
· Command area survey (GPS survey)
· Conceptualize the Irrigation System and seek opinion of Farmers

· Agricultural survey
· Socio-economic survey
· Environmental survey etc
2.3.4 Field data analysis
The collected data and information has to be analyzed, on return to the office, before the final decision
can be taken on the project:
i. Command area
Estimation of gross command area is often difficult to work out. Following methods can be used to find
the command area.
· Data obtained from the farmers
· From topographic map
· From project identification study
· Use of GPS
ii. Scheme water balance
Before starting the canal design, it is important to check the water balance to conform whether
variable water is sufficient to the proposed command area in all seasons. Following are the steps to
follow:
· Determine future cropping pattern- crops, planting, dates and harvesting dates;
· Calculate the irrigation water requirement for each time period(15 days);
· Assess the effect on the irrigation water requirement by adjusting the cropping pattern on
time period forward and backward;
· Measure the catchment area in the intake sites from the topography maps;
· Calculate the 80% reliable flow by measuring the river discharge at the intake site and the
hydrographs of the area;
· For each time period, compare the irrigation water requirement with 80% reliable flow to
check the availability of water;
· Adjust the cropping pattern, calculate irrigation water requirement for it and check
the availability of water. Repeat this method and determine the optimum command areas;
· For each crop, determine the maximum area that can be irrigated. If the whole area cannot
be reliably irrigated command should be reduced. If necessary, alternative cropping pattern
to allow a larger irrigable area for the winter and spring crop should be discussed with
district agricultural office.
iii. Feasibility design
a. System layout
Using topographic maps a plan of the system should be made showing the source, primary
canal alignment, major structures and main part of the command area. A schematic line
diagram of system layout need to be prepared;
b. Canal design
For feasibility level design, typical canal cross sections can be related to canal discharge and
ground conditions. For rehabilitation designs, canal designs, canal design are only required
for reaches where complete remodeling is needed.

c. Structure design
It should be prepared for intake and major structures. For minor structures typical
standard drawing may be used
d. Standards for feasibility level design
· Head Works: Sketches (Plan, typical section) showing location and levels and dimensions
should be prepared and principal quantities estimated,
· Layout: A layout plan of the scheme and command area showing primary and secondary
canal alignment should be prepared,
· Canals
· Canal routes, capacities , slope, levels and dimensions should be established,
· A longitudinal section of the canal should be prepared,
· Typical cross sections should be drawn,
· Earthwork quantities should be worked out,
· Structures
· Drawings of the typical structures should be prepared,
· Each size and type of structure should be assessed,
· Drawings of major structures showing location, levels and dimension should be
prepared,
· Principal quantity should be calculated,
2.4 Topographical Survey
Topographical survey is the process of determining the position both in plan and elevation of natural
features of the area. The extent of topographical survey depends upon the size, type, and level of the
project study and includes:
· Benchmark survey,
· Traverse survey,
· Alignment survey, and
· Longitudinal and cross sectional survey
The topographical survey standard for small scale irrigation schemes may be as follows (Table-2.1).
Table 2-1: Topographical Survey Standards
S.N Principal use Details
1 Scheme identification · Use existing maps but supplement with site inspection
2 Feasibility study · Use existing maps, site sketches,
· Carry out traverse survey (GPS),
· Benchmark survey (0.50 km interval in the hills and 1.0 km
interval in Terai),
· Carry out detailed site survey for structures-intake/headwork,
major structures
· For command area topographical survey take 100 m interval
grid for contour interval of 0.25m in Terai and 0.50 to 1.0 m
in the hills
· Carry out canal alignment survey with l-section and x-sections
3 Construction stage · Use design drawings,
· Check and agree levels and dimensions,
· Carry out additional survey for details of the site if required

2.5 Hydrological survey
Hydrological survey is carried out to provide data and information for the assessment of water
availability for irrigation, and assessment of flood flows for the intake/headwork and cross drainage
works. The data and information includes are flow measurement, catchment area size, conditions of
catchment, river or drainage sections and profile. The general land use pattern of the catchment area
may also be collected during this survey.
2.6 Socio-economic Survey
The socio-economic survey is carried out to determine the social structure of the community and its
economic status. The survey includes the collection of quantitative and qualitative data and information
on social structure, socio-cultural institutions, and economic activities of the farmers of the scheme
command area. Some of social and economic indicators of the community are as follows:
Social indicators:
· Willingness/commitment- verbal request, formation of committee, submission of request
form;
· Ethnic composition- homogeneity, diversity;
· Education- literacy, school and college, awareness about irrigated agriculture, prior experience
on irrigation;
· Rural organization- Parma, Guthi, etc;
· Family size- male/female, economically active members,
· Migration- temporary, permanent, foreign/urban areas;
Economic indicators:
· Land holding size- land less, marginal land (< 1 ha), land lords(> 5 ha);
· Main occupation- agriculture, service, labor, foreign service, business;
· Source of income- agriculture, service, remittance etc;
· Expenditure- food, cloth, schooling, festivals, livestock, agriculture
LILI/HELVETAS has developed socio-economic and technical survey formats for the pre-feasibility study
and detail study of small irrigation schemes. These formats can be used for the survey and study of
small irrigation schemes and hence annexed for reference (Annex:2-1 and Annex:2-2).
2.7 Agricultural Survey
For small irrigation schemes agricultural survey may include data and information regarding the soil
type, land use and agriculture practices of the command area to be proposed. The soil survey may
include the assessment of the type of soil in the command area and its suitability for irrigated
agriculture. The soils may be alluvial, sandy, gravel and boulder mixed.
The land use survey may include the general assessment on land use in the command area which may
classify in percent the agricultural land, forest land, grazing land, wetlands, National Parks and reserve
forest area.
The agriculture survey includes the collection of data and information on:
· Existing cropping pattern,
· Existing crop yields,
· Inputs used and its availability,
· Marketing facility and labor situation

With the completion of detail feasibility study of the scheme studied, the compiled report should
prepare and the report shall comprise the following headings:
· Analysis of Irrigation Scheme Area:
- Scheme area Background
- Location and Accessibility
- Geological and Environmental Aspects
- Lay Out of the Scheme
· Technical Survey:
- Location and condition of Water Source(s) and Assessment
- Description of proposed Structures
- Availability of Construction Material and Labors
· Socio-economic and Agricultural Survey:
- Social and Economic Situation
- Agricultural Situation (existing and proposed command area, cropping pattern and
intensity)
- Availability and Linkage to agricultural Service Providers
· Detail Cost - Estimate
- Approved District Rates and Rates at the Sites
- Rate Analysis
- Abstract of Cost and Bill of Quantities
- Summary of Labor and Materials
· Economic Analysis
- Crop Budget without and with Irrigation Scheme
- Benefit/Cost Ratio and Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR)
· Conclusion and Recommendation:
· Annexes:
- Details of compiled data, Designs and Calculations
- Working Drawings
- Minutes of Community Meetings and Consent Letters of Land Donation
- Photographs of sites/location (Intake, command area, Alignment, community meeting)
- Soft Copy of GPS data
For the preparation of design report, refer Guidelines for Detail Survey, Design and Cost Estimate Report
of Small-scale Farmer Managed Irrigation System.

Chapter-3
3. Hydrological Analysis and Water Requirement Assessment
3.1 Maximum Design discharge
The criteria for the selection of maximum design discharge are based on technical and economic
considerations. The major criteria for the selection of design flood are:
· Importance of structure to be constructed,
· Effect of overtopping of the structure,
· Potential loss of life and downstream damage, and
· Cost of the structure
Books on Hydraulic Structures and manuals have suggested the return period as below (Table-3.1).
There are various methods of estimating maximum design discharge or design flood.
Table 3-1: Suggested Return Period
3.2 Flood Frequency Analysis
The flood frequency analysis is a statistical method to show that flood events of certain magnitude may
on average is expected once every n year. It is generally carried out to estimate the design flood from
the recorded flow data of more than 10 years. The most commonly used methods for frequency analysis
are:
· Gumbel’s distribution,
· Log Pearson –III distribution, and
· Log Normal distribution
The details of these methods are available in the Handbook of Applied Hydrology by Vent Te Chow,
1964.
3.3 Regional Analysis
When the recorded hydrological data of the river is absent or too short a regional analysis is adopted
to estimate the flood flow, and low flow of required return periods. In this method a hydrological
homogeneous region is considered from statistical point of view. There are various methods of
estimating flood flow of given return period based on regional analysis. In Nepal following methods are
used to estimate the flood flow:
· WECS/DHM (1990) Method- based on regression analysis,
· Tahal et al (2002) Method – based on Index Flood Method,
· Sharma and Adhikari (2004) – based on regression analysis
S.N Type of structure Return Period in years
1 Irrigation supply reliability 5
2 Road culverts 5-10 years depending upon the type of crossings
3 Highway bridge 10-50 years depending upon the type of rivers
4 Irrigation intake 10-25 years
5 Irrigation weir/barrage 50-100 depending upon its size
6 Cross drainage structures 10-25 years

In addition, there are rational method and empirical methods such as Modified Dickens method, Ryve’s
method. The most commonly used methods in Nepal is Sharma and Adhikari Method based on regional
analysis and Rational Method as empirical method.
3.3.1 Sharma and Adhikari Method
This method is derived using hydrometric data of DHM up to 1995 and is considered the updated version
of WECS and DHM Method. The formulae are as follows:
For estimating the floods of other return periods, the relationships shown in the WECS and DHM
Method can be used. Hence, the 50 year return period flood (Q50) is estimated as follows:
3.3.2 Rational Method
The Rational Method is a widely used method for flood flow estimation of small sized-basins. The
rational method formula is as follows:
Where, Q = peak discharge in m3/s
C = runoff coefficient (roughly defined as ratio of runoff to rainfall)
I = rainfall intensity in mm/h
A = catchment area in km2
For the natural catchments, the values of C vary from 0.2 to 0.4. The average rainfall intensity I has a
duration equal to the critical storm duration, normally taken as a time of concentration.
Rainfall intensity-duration-frequency data normally is used to estimate the rainfall intensity (I). If such
data are not available, the value of I is taken to be between 60 to 70 mm per hour for small catchments
in Nepal. These values are comparable to other studies in Nepal and they correspond to about 50 year
return period maximum rainfall intensity.
3.4 Water Availability for Irrigation
3.4.1 General
The assessment of water availability for irrigation is carried out on 80% reliability of full supply. This
means 80% of the time there is at least enough water available to meet full demand of irrigation.
For gauged river the reliability assessment is carried out by frequency analysis while for ungauged
river regional regression analysis for long term mean flow is adopted in Nepal.

3.4.2 Frequency Analysis
For gauged sites the 80% reliable monthly flows are obtained using the following formula:
The factor 0.8418 is the 1 in 5 reduced variate of the normal distribution assuming that the monthly
flow series follows a normal distribution. In the case of the diversion site being near the gauged site,
the monthly flows at the diversion site is calculated using an area ratio.
3.4.3 MIP Method
The Medium Irrigation Project (MIP) Design Manual (1982) has developed regional hydrographs using
spot measurements of the ungauged rivers. This method is widely used in irrigation planning and design
in Nepal. The country has been divided into seven hydrological regions (Figure 3.1); each region has a
monthly hydrograph showing mean, 20% reliable and 80% reliable flows. The ordinates of the regional
hydrographs have been non-dimensionalised by dividing each by the April flow. For using the non-
dimensional hydrograph to predict the mean and 80% reliable flows, it is essential to measure the flow
at site during dry season (September to May) to eliminate the influence of storm flow. The detail of MIP
method can be found in PDSP Manual M3.
3.5 Discharge Measurement
3.5.1 General
The amount of water passing a point on the stream channel during a given time is a function of velocity
and cross-sectional area of the flowing water and is expressed by Continuity equation: Q=AV, where
Q is the stream discharge, A is cross-sectional area, and V is flow velocity. Discharge measurement
follows the continuity equation which is concerns with the measurement of the flow velocity.
For small irrigation schemes, three methods are appropriate for discharge measurement: Float method,
Bucket and watch method and Current meter method.

Figure 3-1: Hydrological Regions of Nepal
3.5.2 Float method
This method measures surface velocity of flowing water. Mean velocity is obtained using a correction
factor. The basic idea is to measure the time taken to float the object in a specified distance.
Vsurface = travel distance/ travel time = L/t
Because surface velocities are typically higher than mean or average velocities, V mean = k Vsurface where
k is a coefficient that generally ranges from 0.8 for rough beds to 0.9 for smooth beds (0.85 is a commonly
used value). In mountain streams with lots of roughness elements, the value may be much lower e.g.
0.67.
The procedures for discharge measurement are as follows:
Step 1: Choose a suitable straight reach with minimum turbulence (ideally at least 3 channel widths
long);
Step 2: Mark the start and end points of the chosen reach;
Step 3: If possible, travel time should exceed 20 seconds but be at least 10 seconds;
Step 4: Drop your object into the stream upstream of the upstream marker;
Step 5: Start the watch when the object crosses the upstream marker and stop the watch when it
crosses the downstream marker;
Step 6: Repeat the measurement at least 3 times and use the average in further calculations;
Step 7: If you only do the float method you need to measure the cross-sectional areas at the start and
end point of your reach.
Step 8: Average cross-sectional areas;
Step 9: Using the average area and corrected velocity, you can now compute discharge,
Key
2. Hills to north of Mahabarats, rivers rising north of shiwaliks, inner Terai.
1. Mountain catchments.
7. Rivers draining from Churia range to the Terai.
3. Pokhara, Nuwakot, Kathmandu, Sun Kosi tributaries.
4. Lower Tamur valley
5. Rivers draining Mahabarats.
6. Kankai Mai basin.

Q = AV
Figure 3-2: Discharge Measurement with Float Method
3.5.3 Bucket and Watch method
Bucket and watch method is simple volumetric measurement of water at the given time period. This
method is applicable for spring source having discharge less than 1 lps. A plastic bucket or any vessel
can be used to measure the volume of water by diverting the entire flow into measuring vessel of known
capacity. The time taken to fill up the vessel is noted. At least three to five readings are necessary for
the measurement of the water and average value is computed. The discharge calculation may be carried
out using following format (Table-3.3).
Table 3-2: Discharge Measurement with Bucket-Watch Method
3.5.4 Current Meter
Current meter is a device used to measure the velocity of flowing water. It has a propeller mounted
on a shaft which allows moving freely to the propeller at any depth of water. The speed of rotation is
the function of the velocity of water. The manufacturer of current meter provides correlation between
number of rotations and velocity of water. The measurement of velocity is more accurate and reliable
and the current meter is extensively used in streams having uniform cross sections.
3.6 Water Requirement Assessment
3.6.1 Crop Water Requirements
The crop water requirement is defined as the quantity of water utilized by the plant during its lifetime.
It is estimate with evapo-transpiration (ETo) of reference crop. The steps used to calculate the crop
water requirements are as follows:

I. Decide cropping pattern,
II. Calculate reference crop evapo-transpiration (ETo) (from FAO methods and tables),
III. Use crop coefficients (from FAO),
IV. Calculate evapotranspiration of crops ETcrop (mm/day)
V. Allow for land preparation (rice and wheat only) loss (Lp),
VI. Allow for deep percolation (rice only)(dp),
VII. Calculate evaporation from land preparation (rice only)(Eo),
VIII. Calculate total crop water requirements (CWR),
IX. Calculate effective rainfall (Pe),
X. Calculate net crop water requirements (net CWR),
The detail of crop water requirement can be referred on PDSP Manual, M3.
3.6.2 Irrigation Water Duty
The duty of irrigation water is the amount of water required for irrigation of unit land area for specific
crop. The duty of irrigation water depends upon:
· Type of crop grown;
· Climate season;
· Type of soil, and
· Efficiency of cultivation methods
In Nepal water requirement practices vary significantly. In the hills and mountains FMIS water requirement
is as high as 5.0 lps/ha, while it is up to 4.0 lps/ha in Terai. For the design of small irrigation schemes
the fallowing water requirement values are suggested (Table-3.7).
Table 3-3: Irrigation Water Duty
Source: Pokhrel, 1998
Water requirement at Head works (diversion point) = Water requirement at field + Conveyance loss

Chapter-4
4. Diversion Headworks and Intakes
4.1 Selection of Site for Headwork or Intake
The selection of site for the headwork or intake relates to ensure the required flow to be diverted to
the canal at all stages of the river. The main considerations in the selection of the headwork or intake
site are as follows:
· Channel dimensions- narrow floodway with a relatively straight approach reach, enabling
the river to develop linear flow,
· Thalweg deflection- the main channel with low flow is referred as thalweg. The stability
of thalweg is the prime importance in selecting the suitable intake sites,
· Outside of a bend- at the outside of bend secondary currents develop which reduce the
entry of bed load into the intake and deflect the bed currents away from the intake (Figure
4-1),
· Confluence of two rivers- at the downstream of the confluence of two rivers the intake
location is mostly suitable,
· Boulder deposits- in steep rivers boulder deposits occur when river emerges from the gorge
and at its downstream river bed is stable due to reduced tractive force,
· Bank stability-banks with rock outcrops, or armored boulder banks protect the intake from
erosion,
· River slope-intake location is stable at pool reach of the river slope,
· Stable geological section- intake is stable where geology is stable.
Figure 4-1: Layout of side intake on hills and Mountain Rivers

4.2 Types of Intake
The main types of intakes are:
· Side intake with no river controls;
· Side intake with simple stones or brushwood weir;
· Side intake with some form of river controls;
· Parallel side intake with spur wall;
· Intake from behind the boulder; and
· Bottom intake
4.3 Design of Simple Side Intake
The design of simple side intake for small scale irrigation systems in the hills consists of:
· Design of feeder canal, and
· Sizing of an orifice to pass the desired discharge
The feeder canal shall have capacity of surplus discharge for flushing the sediments from sand trap or
de-silting basin. The orifice with or without gate is provided on the headwall having sufficient height
to protect the canal from flood entry. The sizing of orifice opening will consider the required discharge
to pass and to control the entry of flood flow (Figure 4-2).
The basic hydraulic design for a simple intake will depend on the size of sediment and hence on the
desirable nominal trap velocity. The basic design parameters of the side intake are presented hereunder
(Table-4.1).
Table 4-1: Velocity and Head Losses across Gravel Traps

B = orifice width, m
D = orifice height, m
h = orifice head loss,m
g = acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2
)
C = discharge coefficient = 0.7
Figure 4-2: Side intake with two orifices
4.4 Bottom Intake
4.4.1 General
A bottom intake captures the water from the bed of the river. It is a run-of- the river diversion structure
which diverts stream flow by allowing water to drop into the trench constructed transverse to the
stream flow. It allows the diverted water to flow through an orifice to the main canal. This type of intake
is mostly suitable in hilly region and also termed as Bottom Rack Intake. The main components of a
bottom intake are:
· Weir to control minimum river flows and to maintain the flow towards the rack,
· Steel rack to extract water from the river,
· Bottom trench immediately below the rack to lead the water extracted by the rack into the
canal,
· Flood control gate immediately downstream of the trench,
· Feeder canal to carry all sediment entering the intake to the settling basin,
· Settling basin with a side spill and sediment flushing arrangement,

4.5 Diversion Weir
4.5.1 General
The diversion weir is simple hydraulic structure across the river to maintain the pond level at
its upstream which needs careful design with respect to hydrologic, hydraulic and structural
analysis. According to the material of construction weirs may be grouped as masonry weir, concrete
weir and gabion weir. According to the shape of crest the weirs are classified as vertical drop weir, Ogee
weir, broad crested weir, and sharp crested weir. The layout of the diversion weir and its components
are presented hereunder (Figure-4.2).
Figure 4-3: Layout of Weir and its Components
1. Weir 2. Divide wall 3. Fish ladder for large weir 4. Under sluice
5. Head regulator 6. Abutments 7. Guide bund 8. Canal
The design of weir consists mainly two parts: hydraulic design and structural design. The design of weir
shall decide the following parameters:
4.5.2 Crest Level of Weir and Under-sluice
Fixation of crest level of the weir is governed by two factors: the required command level of the canal
and to divert the low flow of the river during dry season. If minimum flow of the river exceeds the
design discharge of the canal the crest level of weir is set at lower than the water level of the river. The
crest level of the under sluice is fixed at the lowest bed level of the river in the deepest channel. The
crest level of the under sluice is generally kept 1 m below the crest of the weir in small and medium
rivers.

4.5.3 Length of Weir and Afflux
Length of weir has direct correlation with the afflux and discharge intensity of the weir. Longer the
length smaller be the discharge intensity. The length of weir also depends upon the topography of the
weir site, state of river, and provision of energy dissipation at downstream end. Lacey has provided
formula for waterway as wetted perimeter:
For boulder stage rivers this Lacey’s formula may not work properly and designer has to judge
considering the following main points:
· Average wetted width of the river during flood;
· Formation of shoals upstream of the weir;
· Energy dissipation devices downstream of the weir;
Figure 4-4: Concrete weir and undersluice
The discharging capacity of
the broad crested weir is
calculated as:
Where, L is total clear waterway
in m, n is number of end
contraction,
H is head over the crest in m
4.5.4 Effect of Retrogression
Retrogression is the lowering of the river bed downstream of the weir in early stages after construction.
In designing the weir the effect of retrogression needs to be considered. For small rivers the
retrogression is taken to be 0.30m to 0.50m.
4.5.5 Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic jump occurs when super critical flow of water changes into the sub-critical flow. This is the
most efficient method of dissipating kinetic energy of super critical flow of water. Hydraulic jump is
stable in sloping glacis and hence it is essential to provide sloping glacis at the weir surface with slope
ranging from 1:3 to 1:5. With the analysis of hydraulic jump following parameters are designed:
· Downstream floor level;
· Length of horizontal floor;
· Downstream protection works; and
· Uplift pressure

4.6 Gabion Weir
4.6.1 Gabion weir
Gabions weir have been used extensively in the past, for irrigation headworks, but the result has not
been encouraging. The gabion weirs are vulnerable to damage by boulders moving during floods, and
after a few wires are broken the entire gabion structures may collapse. Most of the gabions weirs
constructed in hill irrigation systems in Nepal stand for only one or two years and the performance is
very poor. Instead of providing the facility to abstract the water, it creates problems of outflanking and
degrading the river bed when it is washed away by the floods. Gabion weirs are suitable in streams with
gentle slope and stable bed conditions usually sandy and muddy. It is nearly impossible to find such
kind of situation in the hilly rivers of Nepal. Hence, gabion weirs basically are semi permanent structures
and their use could be limited in the following three locations at head works:
· For river bed control;
· To make an orifice controlling the amount of water diverted into the intake; and
· As protection for the inlet structure from erosion by flow over the spillway and from the
gate.
Compared with masonry, gabions have the advantage of a degree of flexibility, but as described above,
they must be considered as semi permanent structures. They cannot be designed to withstand such
high discharge intensities as permanent structures, nor can they have life of more than 10 years or so
years in gravel bed rivers bearing in mind the gabion weirs' vulnerability to breaking and corrosion. The
economy of gabions is in the use of local stones found on the stream itself. The saving in capital cost
is, however, offset by additional maintenance costs and the inevitable rebuilding.
If properly constructed, gabions could be suitable for use in reaches of rivers, which are sometimes
unstable, with flood flows causing movement of the riverbed. Gabion weirs may be constructed as
simple gravity weirs with alternative downstream arrangements:
· With a downstream sill or counter-weir
· With both a stilling basin floor and downstream sill
· With depressed stilling basin floor and flexible apron
Gabions are highly permeable, and when used for hydraulic structures, require particular attention to
ensure the foundation material is not washed out a common cause of failure of gabion structures is due
to the filter layers being inadequate.
A filter of impermeable membrane must be constructed underneath the gabions. The preferred form
of filter is a synthetic fabric ( a type of geotextile). Alternatively a sand and gravel filter may be used.
The sand layer should be at least 150 mm thick.
Failure of gabions may also occur by the wire cage through the impact of stones and boulders carried
over the weir. Stepped weirs are not suitable for small channels with low flows and light bed load. The
weir crest may need protection with a concrete coping. A gravel and rock fill against the upstream face
of the weir is recommended.
Gabions must not simply be laid on existing bed of banks surfaces; they require proper foundations as
would be required for masonry weirs.

Comments:
The best results for this type of construction are obtained by exercising the utmost care in the filling
of the gabions and in arranging their layout in courses in such a way that the distribution of the mesh
in the structure is balanced with respect to its characteristic functions.
The deformation caused by shear can be effectively reduced by increasing the number of panels aligned
perpendicular to the face of the wall and therefore parallel to the soil thrust and water thrust.
Every effort shall be made to keep voids and bulges in the gabions to a minimum in order to ensure
proper alignment and neat square appearance.
Well constructed gabions with proper panels inside are monolithic and continuous. Compression and
shear tests conducted by MACCAFERRI have shown that gabions could withstand a compression load
of 300 to 400 tons per square meter. The deformation of gabions is mainly due to shear stress developed
in the boxes. The values of shear modulus of elasticity were found varying from 25 to 40 ton per square
meter. (MACCAFERRI, Nepal Pvt. Ltd).
Figure 4-5: Plan and Section of a Gabion Weir

Chapter-5
5 Canal Design
5.1 Design Concept
The design of irrigation canal involves:
· Determination of canal capacity;
· Determination of cross sectional parameters;
· Determination of bed level and slope of alignment;
For large irrigation system canal design of capacity starts from the field level to main canal and up to
intake. For small scale irrigation the design of canal capacity may be carried out by:
Q = NCWR x CCA/8.64
Where, Q – design capacity of canal at the intake in lps;
NCWR – net crop water requirement in mm/day
CCA – cultural command area in ha;
If crop water requirement is not assessed, the capacity of canal can also be determined by the duty of
irrigation water.
Q = Duty x CCA
Where, duty or water requirement in lps/ha;
Example: Duty = 3 l/s/ha; CCA = 20 ha;
The capacity of canal (Qd) = 3 x 20 = 60 l/s
Canal cross sectional parameters are bed width, water depth, side slope, roughness coefficient, and
free board. The longitudinal slope of the canal is determined based on the size of the canal and
topography of the alignment.
5.2 Design of Unlined Canals
5.2.1 Design Procedure
The design of unlined canals is carried out by various methods. For small irrigation schemes it may be
appropriate to use Manning’s formula. The design procedure of the canal follows a series of steps:

The design of various sections of the canal may be carried out in excel sheets. Various parameters of
The design of various sections of the canal may be carried out in excel sheets. Various parameters of
canal design are briefed in the forthcoming headings.
5.2.2 Side Slopes
The side slopes for the trapezoidal canal section (Figure 5-1) is determined on the basis of slope stability
of soil. The side slope should minimum as far as possible. If the canal in fill the side slope should be
slightly flatter than in cut sections. Following are recommended side slopes of the canal.
Soil type Side slope (m) (vertical: horizontal)
Hard rock 1:0.25
Soft rock 1: 0.50
Heavy clay 1:0.50 to 1:1
Loam 1:1 to 1: 1.50
Sandy loam 1:1.5 to 1:2
Figure -: Typical Canal Section
5.2.3 Permissible Velocity
The optimum design velocity is chosen from the experience and knowledge of the soil conditions. The
velocity should also be checked using the Tractive Force formula. The lower velocity allows to grow the
weeds in the canal section than consequently decreases the canal capacity while higher velocity tends
to erode the bed of the unlined canal. Hence, the velocity should be in permissible limits based on the
type of soil, and capacity of canal. For unlined canals the velocity should be in between 0.45 m/s to
0.75 m/s.
The unit Tractive Force (T) is given by the equation:
T = CWRS
Where, C is the coefficient taken as 1 for bed and 0.76 for sides,
W is the specific weight of water, 1000 kg/m3,
R is the hydraulic radius of the canal section, m
S is the water surface slope
The permissible Tractive forces of various soil conditions are presented hereunder (Table 5.1):

Table 5-1: Permissible Tractive Force
5.2.4 Bed Width to Depth Ratio
The bed width to depth ratio depends upon the capacity of the canal. For small irrigation canals having
the discharge less than 0.50 m3
/s the ratio is recommended to be unity. For discharges greater than
0.50 m3
/s, wider canals could be provided if necessary.
5.2.5 Canal Slope
The canal slope is designed for non-silting and non-scouring velocity in canal and is calculated using
Manning’s Formula:
Where, R is hydraulic radius =A/P, S is canal slope and n is roughness coefficient,
For small irrigation schemes the slope of the canal may limit up to 1:1500 in Terai and 1:500 in the hills.
However, for existing FMIS the slopes may be steeper ranging from 1:100 to 1:500 depending upon the
canal size, soil type, and topography.
The value of Manning’s roughness coefficient depends upon the type of bed materials, condition of the
canal and its geometry. The recommended values of n are presented hereunder (Table 5.2).
Table 5-2: Values of Roughness Coefficient

5.2.6 Free Board
Free board is difference of bank top level and full supply level of the canal. It is necessary to accommodate
surplus discharge of canal coming from upstream reach. Free board depends upon the capacity of canal.
The recommended values of free board are given below.
For Q less than 0.10 m3/s Fb=0.20 m;
For Q between 0.10 to 0.50 m3/s Fb=0.30 m
5.2.7 Minimum Radius of Curvature
The irrigation canal should be straight as far as possible from hydraulic point of view. However, in practice
it is not possible to align straight canal and needs to bend the canal providing appropriate curvature.
The minimum radius of curvature depends upon the canal capacity and topography. For small irrigation
schemes the acceptable radius for unlined canal is taken from three to seven times of the water surface
width. In rocky section the radius may be three times while it is larger in general types of soil.
5.2.8 Design Example of Unlined Canal
Data:
Command area = 20 ha,
Water requirement in hills = 5lps/ha
Soil type = ordinary soil

Hence, design is acceptable and canal parameters are:
Bed width = 0.30 m,
Water depth = 0.30 m,
Free board = 0.15 m,
Side slope (V:H) = 1:1
Longitudinal slope = 1/500
The design of canal section is usually carried out in excel sheet with trial and error method.
5.3 Lining of Canals
5.3.1 Type of Canal Lining
Canals are lined to prevent seepage and leakage. There are various types of lining the choice of which
is based on the purpose, nature of the scheme and availability of the material. The main features of
the lined canal are presented in tabular form (Table 5-3).
Table -: Main features of lined canal
5.3.2 Design Concept of Lined Canal
Design of lined canal is carried out using continuity equation and Manning’s formula considering as rigid
boundary canal section.
The longitudinal slope for small canals depends upon the topography and existing condition of the
canal. For rectangular section of canal the bed width to water depth ratio is taken as unity for design
purpose. The side slope of the lined canal is zero in most of the cases. However, the lined canal may
be of trapezoidal section with side slope ranging from 1:0.50 to 1:1.

5.3.3 Design Procedure of Lined Canal
The design procedure for the lined canal is almost same as that of unlined canal for small irrigation
schemes.
Bed width = 0.40 m,
Water depth = 0.40 m,
Free board = 0.20 m,
Longitudinal slope = 1/400
The design of canal section is usually carried out in excel sheet with trial and error method. LILI has
prepared two sheets for canal design: one for earthen canal and another for lined canal design (Annex:
5-1).

5.4 Design of Covered Canals
5.4.1 Design Concept
Covered canals are generally designed to be free flowing open channels like lined canal section. For the
hydraulic computation, Manning’s formula is used which is described in previous headings. Head losses
in the transition between the open canal section and the covered canal section need to be considered
during the design. The energy losses can be computed as:
Where, Hi, Ho are the head losses at the inlet and outlet respectively in m,
Ci, Co are loss coefficients for the inlet and outlet;
Vp is the velocity in the covered section in m/s,
V is the velocity in the open canal in m/s,
g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
The value of Ci and Co is different for different types of transitions. Values for some of the transitions
are as follows (Table 5.4). The most practical values of Ci and Co are 0.50 and 1.00 respectively.
Table 5-4: Ci and Co values for different transitions
5.4.2 Design of Piped Canal
Piped section may flow full or part full.
For piped canals flowing full, the capacity is determined by the:
· Pipe diameter (internal);
· Pipe length;
· Difference in water level between upstream and downstream (i.e. the head loss).
Pipes are designed for a velocity in the range of 1.0 to 3.0 m/s.
Pipe design charts are used to calculate the head loss due to friction within the pipe. Entry, exit and
bend losses are added.
Total head loss (HL) is given by:
HL = Hi + Hfr + Hb + Ho
Where, Hi, Ho are entrance and exit head losses (m)
Hfr is the friction head loss over the length of the pipe (m)
Hb is the head loss in bends (m)

The entrance and exit losses are calculated using formula:
Most pipe entrances are abrupt and values of Ci = 0.5 and Co = 1.0 are generally used. Friction losses
may be calculated using the charts given in Figures 10.12 to 10.15 of Chapter 10.3, Rigid Boundary
Canals from D2 Field Design Manual Vol I.
Losses in bends, Hb, are given by:

Table 5-5: Hydraulic Properties of Pipes Flowing Part Full
A check needs to be made on the hydraulics of the pipe to see whether the pipe will submerge or not.
The Froude number in pipes flowing part full (and covered canals) should be kept below 0.55 to avoid
standing waves. The Froude number is calculated from formula

If pipe invert is set at canal bed level, then water depth above invert = 0.5 m. This is about 1.4 x diameters,
i.e. the pipe may submerge (greater than 1.2 times pipe diameter).
To avoid submergence, the pipe invert would have to be set above canal bed level which is not satisfactory
for sediment transport. Therefore, increase pipe diameter to 0.6 m (to match the canal depth) and set
invert of pipe at bed level.
Set outlet to ensure that pipe is not submerged. Allow 0.2 x diameter freeboard i.e., set pipe invert at
(downstream water level – 0.8 x diameter).

Chapter-6
6. Sediment Control Structures
6.1 Gravel Traps
In small irrigation schemes in the hills a gravel trap behind the intake is provided to exclude the gravel
from entering into the canal. The design of gravel traps differs from that of settling basins because the
former handle coarse material which enters near the bed, rather than suspended material which has
to be settled through the depth. The main design principle is that the water velocity through the basin
should be less than that which is competent to move the smallest size of gravel. Table 6.1 gives nominal
and design velocities for various particle sizes.
Table 6-1: Flow velocity through Gravel Trap
Gravel traps may be emptied by hand or by flushing. For small schemes, hydraulic flushing will not
usually be appropriate; manual clearing is more likely to allow an economic design with more assured
operation (Figure-6.1).

Figure 6-1: Typical Gravel Trap for Small Schemes
6.2 Sand Traps
6.2.1 General Configuration
Sand traps operate as settling basins and have three parts: inlet zone, settling zone and outlet zone
(Figure-6.2). The design configuration of inlet zone affects the performance of sand traps. To achieve
optimum hydraulic efficiency and effective use of the settling zone, the inlet needs to distribute inflow
and suspended sediment uniformly over the cross-sectional area of the settling zone. The size of settling
zone depends upon the capacity of canal and its location. The minimum length to width ratio (L/W) is
taken as 2 to 3.

Figure 6-2: Typical Configuration of Sand Trap
In irrigation systems, it is generally feasible to achieve a better L/W ratio, say 8 to 10. Basin shape can
be improved by subdivision with longitudinal divide walls, which may also be desirable for operational
reasons.
6.2.2 Sand Trap Design
For small irrigation schemes where there is no data available for the design of sand trap a simplified
method is adopted here.
i. Assess the suspended solids concentration and their mean size
From general knowledge and site inspection assess the maximum suspended solids concentration and
the probable D20 and D50 sizes. If flood flows can be totally excluded by closing the intake then provide
the criterion for gate closure. Otherwise, a peak concentration at least as high as the maximum reached
annually, should be assumed.
The design of a settling basin is very sensitive to the particle size of the sand to be trapped. Samples
of the sediment entering an existing canal, or in the river at the intake site, should be collected and
analyzed for particle size distribution. For design of the settling basin, the D20 particle size should be
used (D20 size being that which 20% of the sample by weight is smaller than). It is not considered
practical to provide a settling basin for D20 particle sizes less than 0.15 mm. For design of the scouring
velocity in the settling basin, the D50 size should be used. If there is no available information, the
following values can be used for design (Table-6.2).
i. Assess transporting capacity of the canal
Consider the design of the canal in terms of its transporting capacity. For example, in a small existing
canal assume a maximum capacity of 100 mg/l of 0.3 mm diameter sand during the month with the
highest sediment load.

Table 6-2: Recommended values of sediment particles
ii. Calculate the required trapping efficiency
The difference between (i) and (ii) gives the trapping efficiency required.
iii. Calculate the required surface area of the settling basin
The design curves (PDSP Manual D2) for D20 particle size can be used to assess the settling basin area.
These curves have been simplified to be appropriate for small schemes. Choose the basin length and
width to give a length/width ratio of 6 to 10 (Figure 6.3).
iv. Flow depth
Choose a flow depth sufficient to ensure no re-scour of deposits when there is full storage
v. Storage requirements
Consider storage requirements in terms of frequency of clearing out, and allow this volume below the
nominal basin depth obtained in (v) above.
The storage volume, Vs

iv. Finalize the size, geometry and location, and check that it remains consistent with the
assumption made in (iv)
Figure 6-3: Typical Layout of Sediment Trap

Chapter-7
7. Canal Structures
7.1 Head Regulator
Head regulator controls the amount of water flowing into the off-taking canal. Head regulator is structured
at the head of each canal taking water from the main canal. Head regulator is equipped with vertical
sliding gates, Road Bridge, and flow measuring devise depending upon the size of the canal, and type
of the scheme. In small scale irrigation scheme head regulator may not have road bridge and flow
measuring device.
7.2 Cross Regulator
Cross regulator heads up water level in the parent canal and allows diverting part of this water to the
off-taking canals. Cross regulator is structured at the downstream of off-taking canal and is equipped
with vertical sliding gates and road bridge for vehicular transport. In small scale irrigation schemes
cross regulators are not necessary to construct.
7.3 Proportional Divider
Flow divider divides the incoming flow of the canal two into branching canals. Flow divider may be
proportional divider or division box. Flow divider may be equipped with gates or has no gates. Most
of FMIS in Nepal have proportional dividers with no gates. These proportional dividers divide water
according to set norms and practices of the community. This practice leads to the rigid system of water
distribution and farmers have no opportunities to take extra water. The system runs automatically with
no need to open or close or adjust the flows.
Figure 7-1: Definition Sketch and Photograph of Proportional Divider
The width of the structure is proportional to the designed discharge of each off-taking canal which is
visible clearly by the farmers. The downstream condition of the proportional divider should be of free
flow condition in all off taking canals. In other words the downstream water level of the canal should
not influence the flowing pattern of the proportional weir.
The design of proportional divider is concerned with the fixing of the width of the weir and provision
of energy dissipating arrangement at the downstream of the off-taking canals. The width of the weir
is calculated considering the broad crested weir:
Where, B is the width of the weir, and H is the height of the crest; the width of the weir is proportional
to the discharge in free flow condition.
The downstream energy dissipation is calculated as per the hydraulic jump calculations. For small scale
structures the length of the basin is 5 to 6 times the height of the drop (difference in water levels of
upstream and downstream canals).

7.4 Outlets
Outlets are the small structure used to supply the water from canals to the field. Depending upon the
type, size and importance of the scheme outlets are of various types. The main design objective of these
outlets is to supply irrigation water equitably up to the tail end of the schemes. In large irrigation systems
outlets are both gated and un-gated. The choice of the gate depends upon the necessity of the operational
flexibility. For small scale irrigation outlets are simple pipe outlets fixed at the head of the field channel.
The control of water could be managed by manual inspection or letting to flow continuously. In hill
schemes pipe outlets provide sufficient drop to the irrigated area which is considerably lower than the
parent canal.
7.4.1 Design of Pipe Outlet
The design formula for a submerged orifice is:
Where, Q is outlet discharge in lps,
A is the area of the pipe in m2
H is the head difference between parent canal water level and water level of outlet canal
C is coefficient and equals to 3,300 for pipe shorter than 6 m and 2,800 for pipe longer
than 6 m (for submerged flow) & 2760 (for free flow)
Thus for a 100 mm diameter HDP pipe with a 0.25 m head difference, the discharge is:
Q = 3300 x 0.102 x 0.250.5 = 13 l/s (for submerged flow)
Q = 2760 x 0.102 x 0.250.5 = 11 l/s (for free flow)
7.5 Drop Structures
In general drop structures are required in a canal when the gradient is steeper then that allowed by the
tractive force. If drops are not provided, erosion will occur in the canal. In the hills, if the canal is in
rock, quite steeply graded canals can be made with no need for bed protection, but some form of stilling
basin should be cut in the rock at the end of the chute.
Figure -: Definition Sketch of Chute Drop

For the small drops (up to 2.0 m), the straight drop fall is the simplest and most appropriate drop fall
structure, for larger drops, various other options are possible:
- Chute
- Cascade
- Pipe drop
Design recommendation
The common hydraulic principle in all types of drop structures is the dissipation of Excess energy as the
water drops from a high level to a low level. All of the water's excess energy must be dissipate inside
the drop structure before water is allowed back into the downstream canal. Small scale irrigation system
in remote hills, construction of large drop structure is difficult and undesirable. Below 2 meters vertical
or chute drops and below 4 meters cascade or pipe drops are more appropriate.
- In case of straight drop, drop should be preferably made in multiples of 0.5 m i.e. 0.50 m, 1.00
m, 1.50 m or 2.00 m.
- Except the pipe drops, the crest width/flume width/cascade width should be made approximately
equal to the upstream canal bed
- Generally rectangular chute should be used for slopes of up to 1:2
- A cascade for slopes from 1:1 to 1:2, or a pipe drop for slopes steeper than 1:1 or for very long
drops may be more appropriate
- In case of cascade drop, the drops should not exceed 1 m each and steps walls should be at
least 0.50 m high
- In case of pipe drops, an inlet box with upstream overflow weir for safe disposal of excess flows
and outlet stilling box are required. The maximum pipe velocity for HDPE pipes should be 2
m/sec
- The structures should be made out of 1:3 cement plastered masonry
- Pitching should be provided downstream of the structure
7.6 Escape Structure
Escape structures are the safety structures for the release of excess water of the canal. In addition
escape structures are provided for emergency release of canal water. Excess water can enter into the
canal both in the dry and rainy seasons.
In small irrigation schemes overflow escapes are suitable in the hills while in the Terai gated escape
structure may also be suitable depending upon topography and size of the canal. For remote canal
alignment overflow type escapes are suitable and are located just upstream of the natural drainage
channel. Gated escape structures need human intervention to adjust and control flow hence it is not
recommended in the remote locations. Generally the interval of escape structure is based on the size
of the canal and topography. In the hills it is recommended to provide escapes at an interval of 500 m
whenever natural drainage channels are available.
Design Concept of overflow escape structure:
i. Overflow escapes are designed as side channel weir,
Q = 1.7 W h 3/2
Where, Q is the flow across the crest (m3/s),
W is the crest width (m), and
h is the water depth across the crest (m)
ii. The crest level is set 0.05 m to 0.10 m above design water level of the canal,

iii. The head over the crest should not exceed 50% of the freeboard,
iv. The length of the crest is calculated for 50% of the canal discharge or estimated excess
discharge,
For small irrigation scheme escapes are overtopping sections of the canal at the location where escaped
water can channelize to the natural drainage channel. Over topping sections are provided at the upstream
of the Superpassages or at the center of the aqueducts.
7.7 Bridges and Culverts
Bridges and culverts are required to carry foot, vehicular and animal traffic across the canals. If crossings
are not provided, the canal bank will be rapidly eroded, causing local instability to the canal. Crossing
should be provided where all the major paths, roads and tracks cross the canal alignment. The culverts
may be concrete pipe culvert and box culvert. The bridges may be foot bridges, large bridges , and
walkways. The choice of pipe culvert or box culvert depends upon the size of the canal and its importance
for vehicular movement.
The pipe culverts are designed to flow full and have the fall of 0.05 m in normal condition. The design
head loss through the culvert for preliminary assessment is taken between 0.05 m to 0.10 m. For the
detail assessment of the head loss is carried out with the consideration of friction loss in the pipe, and
inlet and outlet loss at upstream and downstream of the pipe.
The flow velocity is recommended to limit within 1 m/s in order to minimize the downstream scour and
protection works therein. In Nepal two categories of concrete pipes of standard sizes are available for
the purpose pipe culverts: NP2 and NP3. Generally, NP2 pipes are used for road works while NP3 pipes
are used for irrigation works. The detailed characteristics of standard concrete pipes is found in IS Code
458:2003.

7.8 Retaining Wall
7.8.1 General
Retaining walls are the structures necessary along the canal alignment to protect the canal from slipping
or sliding. In general retaining walls are necessary in hill irrigation schemes where canal alignment is
not stable enough. Based on the materials used retaining walls are categorized as follows:
· Masonry retaining wall
· Masonry with dry stone panels
· Dry stone walls
· Concrete retaining walls
· Gabion walls
7.8.2 Design Concept of Dry and Gabion Retaining Wall
The design of retaining wall involves the fixation of bottom width, top width, height and material to be
used. For dry stone and gabion retaining walls the design criteria is as follows:
i. For shallow depth slide
a. Dry stone wall with vertical face
Max depth of wall (H) = 4 m,
Thickness of wall (W) > 0.2 H,
Face angle 4:1
b. Gabion wall with stepping face
Thickness of wall (W) > 0.2 H,
Face angle 4:1
ii. For deep depth slide
a. Dry stone wall with sloping face
Top thickness of wall (W) > 0.25 H,
Base thickness of wall (B)> 0.70 H
b. Gabion wall with stepping face
Top thickness of wall (W) > 2 m,
Base thickness of wall (B)> 0.70 H
7.8.3 Design Procedure of Masonry and Concrete Retaining Wall
The size of the retaining wall for masonry, concrete and RCC is fixed on the basis of stability calculation
which is checked against overturning and sliding. The design procedure involves the following steps:
i. Assess the factor of safety
· Factor of safety against overturning
2.0 for normal loading case,
1.50 for extreme loading case
· Factor of safety against sliding
1.5 for normal loading case,
1.2 for extreme loading case,

Figure 7-3: Definition Sketch of different type Retaining Walls
ii. Calculate the loads acting on the wall
· active soil pressure due to horizontal ground,
· surcharge load of the soil behind the wall,
· hydrostatic pressure behind the wall,
· self weight of the wall,
iii. Assess the allowable stress (compressive and tensile) of the wall based on the material
of the wall.
iv. Assess the filter materials to be used behind the wall section
v. Draw the load diagram
vi. Calculate the forces and moments on the toe of the wall
vii. Check the factor of safety
viii. Calculate the bearing pressure and check against allowable pressure
ix. Check the stress at the junction of the wall

Figure 7-6: Possible Retaining Examples in Canals

Chapter-8
8. Cross Drainage Structures
8.1 Type of Cross-Drainage Structure
There are five types of cross drainage structures in irrigation canal alignments:
· Aqueduct- when canal passes over the drain,
· Superpassage- when canal passes under the drain,
· Siphon- when canal passes under the drain,
· Drain culvert- when drain passes under the canal, and
· Level crossing-when canal crosses the drain at the same level
8.2 Design Considerations
8.2.1 Design Discharge
The design flood discharge is assessed by hydrological analysis as described in Chapter-3. In small cross
drainage strictures the flood return period may be considered as 5 to 10 years. For aqueduct 10 years
return period may be essential while for Superpassage, siphon, and culvert 5 years return period may
be adequate.
8.2.2 Waterway of the Drain
The waterway of the drainage is necessary to fix for the structure in order to avoid constriction of the
flood flow. In the hills and mountain areas the waterway is provided within the existing defined banks
of the river or drain. In Terai area Lacey’s waterway may be appropriate; where, Q is the design flood
discharge of the drain.
8.2.3 Contraction and Expansion of Waterway
The contraction and expansion of the waterway of the drainage channel should be smooth in order to
minimize loss of lead therein. The contraction should not exceed 20% for drains. The transitions of the
aqueduct, siphon, and culvert barrel should not be steeper 2:1 in contraction and 3:1 in expansion. The
transitions are designed on the basis of Mitra’s hyperbolic transition equation:
Where, Bx is the bed width at any distance x from the flumed section,
Bn is the bed width of normal canal section,
Bf is the bed width of flumed canal section,
Lf is the length of transition,
8.2.4 Head Loss through Structure
The loss of head across the structure also governs the choice of structure. Adequate hydraulic head
drives the canal flow across the drainage structure. Aqueducts and Superpassage have less head loss
while siphon requires higher head difference between its inlet and outlet. The velocity through the
barrel of the siphon or in the flume section of the aqueduct is limited to 2 to 3 m/s.

8.3 Design Concept of Aqueduct
Aqueducts are used where canal crosses over deeply incised streams or drains. The basic considerations
in the design of aqueduct are:
· HFL of drain or stream should be sufficiently below the bed level of the canal;
· Banks of the drain should be stable;
· For small irrigation schemes the span of aqueduct should limit to 10 m;
· Water velocities in the flume should be from 1.0 to 1.5 m/s;
Figure 8-1: Aqueduct in Hills

8.4 Design Concept of Superpassage
There are many types of Superpassage based on their materials of construction, size of the drainage
channel, and need of protection works. The design of each type of Superpassage depends solely on the
topographical conditions and nature of drainage channel. According to the materials of construction
Superpassage may be:
· Stone masonry;
· Concrete pipe; and
· Reinforced concrete
In most small irrigation schemes Superpassages are like a covered canal with guide walls to confine the
drainage flow. However, downstream protection works are essential in several instances to dissipate
the excess energy of the drainage channel during the flood. A typical sketch of the Superpassage is
presented hereunder (Figue-8.3).
Figure 8-2: Typical Superpassage with u/s guide walls and d/s protections.
8.5 Design Concept of Canal Siphon
Inverted siphons are used to cross the drainage channel by a canal. There are two types of siphons:
· Shallow siphon to cross shallow and wide river with little pressure head, and
· Deep siphon to cross deep river
Shallow siphon: Shallow siphons are designed so that the river or drain is kept on the same gradient
and the canal flows in a conduit under the river bed. Small siphons are often designed using concrete
pipes in a masonry or concrete surround. Adequate velocity should be provided to prevent siltation at
low flows. For small irrigation canals drop type inlet can also be provided. To prevent choking from
floating debris trash rack is provided at the upstream of inverted siphon.
Deep Siphon: Deep siphons are used in the hill schemes to cross the river in deep valleys. The siphon
is taken down the valley side, anchored by blocks, and then crosses the river on the short span bridge.
Due to high pressures the siphons are usually made of steel pipe (Figure 8.4). In some cases bridge is
in suspension with pipe held in wire slings below the cable.

8.6 Design Concept of HDP Pipe Crossing
The design of HDP pipe consists of three components:
· Hydraulic design of HDP pipe; and
· Structural design of cable suspension
Hydraulic Design of HDP Pipe: Pipe crossing section may flow full or part full. Considering the full flow
of the section the following parameters need to be decided first:
· Diameter of pipe (internal) based on design discharge of the canal system;
· Length of pipe based on the topography of the drainage section;
· The difference in water level between upstream and downstream or inlet and outlet.
The limiting velocity of the HDP pipe is considered less than 3 m/s. Based on this limiting velocity, and
design discharge, the diameter of the pipe and required loss of head therein is assessed from the pipe
flow characteristics available in standard table (standard provided by the manufacturing company).
In addition to the loss of head in pipe friction other losses such as trash loss, entry and exit loss and
bend loss need also be assessed by using standard formula and practices.
Entry and exit loss is assessed as, He = 1.5*(V2
pipe-V2
canal)/2g
Where, VPipe is velocity of water in pipe in m/s
VCanal is velocity of canal at the inlet in m/s
Joint loss is assessed as 25% of friction loss for each joint. The bend loss is calculated as
Hb = Cb*Vpipe
2
/2g,
Where, Cb is bend coefficient,
VPipe is velocity of water in pipe in m/s
The trash rack loss is taken as 0.10 for small irrigation schemes.
Structural Design of Cable: The design of suspension cable consists of the calculation of saddle difference,
cable inclination, tension in cable, and loads due to cable, pipe, wind load and other loads.
· Maximum permissible height difference between two saddles (h) = Eh-El, where Eh and El are
the elevation of higher and lower saddle (crossing). H is considered as S/20 to S/25 where S
is clear span of the saddle or crossing;
· Cable inclinations at higher saddle (ß1)= tan-1
(4b + h)/l (degree) and cable inclinations at
lower saddle (ß2)= tan-1
(4b - h)/ l (degree), where b is the sag measured at the midpoint of
the cable (m); and maximum cable inclination at saddle of higher elevation is given by,
ßmax = tan-1
(4 l /22 + l /25)/ l = tan-1
(0.1818 l + 0.04 l)/ l = tan-1
0.2218 =12.51o
, say 13o
· Horizontal distance from the saddle of higher elevation to the lowest point of cable is given
by ; e = l/2(1+h/4b)
· Maxm
sag at the lowest of cable from the saddle at higher elevation is given by
fmax = b +h/2 + h2
/16b
· Total horizontal tension (all cable) (HT) = G* l 2
/8b, where G is load in KN/m
· Total Maxm
tension (all cable) at the higher saddle is given by,
Tmax = HT/cosß1 =HT*(1+tan2
ß1)1/2
· Max tension in main cable (T(M) max)= Tmax* Am/(Am+Ah) and Max tension in hand rail
cable (T(H)max) = Tmax* Ah/(Am+Ah), Where Am and Ah are cross sectional areas of main
and handrail cables respectively,
· To a close approximation when two saddles are at different elevations the arc length of the
loaded cable across the span is given by,

L = l [1+2/3*(fmin/ l) 2*(1+K)/K + 2/3*{( fmin+h)/ l }2* (1+K)], where L is the total arc length
i.e. cable length across the span to a very close approximation, K = { l /( l +h)}1/2
, l = span of
crossing, and fmin is the lowest point of the cable from the elevation of saddle on the lower
side under dead load case.
Trial and error procedure is adopted to solve these cable equations. The level span equations come
close to give solutions for the inclined span when fmin is replaced by (fmin+h/2). Since the equations for
the level span are simpler than for inclined span, they can be used frequently for making the first guess
for values to use in calculations with the inclined span equations.
For level span, Eh-El = h = 0, C =1 and fmin= Bd = dead load sag, then the equation reduces to
L = l [1 +8/3*( Bd/l) 2
]
· For span up to 80 m, Sag to Span ratio in dead load case = 20
· For span over 80 m, Sag to Span ratio in dead load case = 22
· Free board = Fb= El - HF1- fmin, where El = Saddle elevation of the walkway cable on the lower
side, HF1 = highest flood level, however, Fb = 5m
· Factor of safety for the cable = Tbreak/Tmax = 3
· Where Tbreak=Minimum breaking load for cables and Tmax= Total cable tension at higher
foundation level (all cables) KN
· Live load = 400 kg/m2
(4 KN/m2
) for span = 50m
· Wind load = 100 to 150 kg/m2
· Dead load = Weight of all accessories
· Other load are effect due to temperature, snow load etc included in live load
· Cutting length of cable = 1.1*Span + back stay length, where back stay length is the cable
length between saddle center and center of dead man or drum(anchorage block) as per
foundation consideration.
The cross sectional area of the cable is the actual area of the wire without counting the void space
between wires. The value for the area can be estimated from the information on the cable weight and
specific gravity (7.843 t/m3
) for steel in the wire. The designer should obtain values of E (modulus of
elasticity) and cross-sectional area from manufacturer or designer’s best judgment has to be used.
Figure -4: HDP Pipe Crossing

8.7 Design Example of HDP Pipe Crossing
Design data:
Discharge to be passed through the pipe =0.05 m3
/s
Span of crossing=20.0 m
Level difference between the pipe inlet and outlet =2.0 m
Total length of HDP pipe required from inlet point to out let point=50.0 m
Velocity of flow in open channel near the inlet point of HDP pipe=0.75 m/s
Maxm
allowable velocity in pipe < 3 m/s
Design steps:
We know, Q=V.A, A=Q/V,
From standard Table for Q=0.05 m3
/s, head loss = HL (m/100m) = 0.88/100=0.0088 m, and
V= 1.59m/s
Flow area of pipe, A = Q/V = 0.05/1.59 = 0.03145m2
Internal diameter of pipe, Ø= (4*A/3.14)1/2
= (4*0.03145/3.14) 1/2
=0.200m
Chose 225 mm outer diameter HDP pipe from series III (data from HDP pipe factory)
Available internal diameter of pipe= 225-2*12.2 =200.6mm, which is close to chosen Ø=200mm
Hence, OK
Calculation of losses
Headloss due to friction in 50.0m long pipe = 50*HL
=50*0.0088 = 0.44m
Entry and exit loss =1.5*(V2
pipe-V2
canal)/2g
= 1.5* (1.592
-0.752
)/2*9.81 = 0.15m
Trash rack loss = 0.10m
Joint loss is estimated as the friction loss in pipe length equivalent to 0.25 m per joint
= 0.25*(50m/5-1) =3.125m (considering length of one pipe to be 5m)
Hence joint loss = 0.0088*3.125 =0.0275m
Bend loss = Cb* V2
pipe/2g, where (Cb = 0.10)
=0.10*1.592
/2*9.81 = 0.0123m per bend
Assuming max 4 bends in this case we get, bend loss = 0.0123*4 = 0.052m
Total loss = 0.44 + 0.15 + 0.10 + 0.0275+ 0.052 =0.77 m < 2 m (level difference between inlet
and outlet),
Hence, OK
Page 56

Chapter-9
9. Shallow Tube Well Irrigation
9.1 Groundwater Potential in Nepal
Groundwater is a part of hydrologic cycle and considered as reservoir of fresh water. Use of underground
water for human needs is being practiced since time
immemorial. There are abundant groundwater
resources in Nepal Terai both in the form of shallow
and deep groundwater. Shallow groundwater is
extracted from the unconfined aquifer where as deep
groundwater is extracted from the confined aquifer
of the ground.
initiated in Nepal from 1959 under Groundwater
Resources of Kathmandu Valley Investigation by
Geological Survey of India. Later in 1969 a
comprehensive investigation was started under USAID
assistance mainly focusing Terai districts: Nawalparasi,
Rupandehi, Kapilvastu, Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and
Kanchanpur. In 1982 D.Duba had evaluated the
groundwater potential of Nepal Terai as 11.60 Billion
Cubic Meters (BCM). In 1987 Groundwater
Development Consultant (GDC) had estimated the
total potential of 10.75 BCM. In 1993 JICA had also carried out groundwater study in Nepal Terai mainly
focusing on Jhapa, Siraha and Banke districts. Water Resources Strategy 2002 has prepared hydro-
geological mapping (Figure-9.3) of the country and has assessed the rechargeable groundwater potential
between 5.80BCM to 11.50 BCM.

Based on the potential groundwater the irrigable area
for shallow tube well in Terai comes to about 1.53
million ha. APP had targeted the installation of 176,000
numbers of STW in Terai each irrigating 2.50 ha of
land. The present use of groundwater for irrigation
is less 20 percent of its minimum potential.
9.2 Design concept
The design of shallow tube well involves the siting of
the well, design of well, selection and design of
distribution system, selection of appropriate pumps,
and cost estimate of the shallow tube well
construction. The site for tube well construction
depends upon the groundwater potential, land
suitability for irrigation, and type of well drilling
technology. The design of tube well relates with the
design of screen length, casing and gravel pack
arrangements during drilling. The selection of water
distribution system depends whether the piped system
or channel system would be suitable for the given
condition.
In the design of tube well two assumptions need to
be made:
· Well yield, and
· Crop water requirement
Highly Productive Aquifer
Moderately Productive Auifer
No Groundwater Potential

Based on the previous experience of similar wells in the locality, yield of the well needs to be assessed.
The yield of the well is simply the expected discharge of the proposed well. It depends upon the hydro-
geological strata of the well location, draw down of water table, length of screen to be provided and
size of well boring. The discharge formula of the shallow tube is expressed as:
Where, Q- discharge in m3
/s,
K-coefficient of permeability in m/s,
H- initial head existing before pump in m,
h-operative length of strainer in m,
R- radius of influence in m, and
r-radius of well in m
In practice the yield of the well is assessed to be 5 to 15 lps depending upon the hydrogeology of the
area.
9.3 Suggested Design Criteria
Based on hydro-geological evidence and existing practice of shallow tube well construction GDC has
suggested following design criteria for effective design and implementation.
· Minimum screen length of 10 m,
· Internal diameter of well 4 inch or 100 mm for 15 lps target yield or less,
· Minimum 12 m blank pipe from ground level to the top of the screen,
· Well development until water is clear,
9.4 Design Procedure of STW
Data required:
· Topographical maps,
· Cadastral maps,
· Soil infiltration test results,
· Drilling results (log sheets),
· Type of distribution system and
· Power source for pump
Design Steps:
· Assessment of hydro-geology of the area and suitability of STW development including
quantity and quality of water;
· Assessment of well yield;
· Determination of well parameters such as screen type, screen length, and length of
casing;
· Assessment of land suitability for STW irrigation;
· Design of cropping patterns with and without project conditions;
· Calculation of crop water requirement based on proposed cropping pattern,
· Preparation of distribution layout based on topography.
· Siting of well and access to the field;
· Selection of power supply options or availability of electric supply;
· Selection of type and technology of distribution system such as lined canal versus
unlined canal, open channel versus piped channel;
· Design of channel size or pipe size;

· Selection of standard control, distribution, and outlet structures;
· Decide STW operating rules;
· Cost estimation;
· Cost benefit analysis;
9.5 STW Design Example
9.5.1 Design Data
Proposed irrigated area: 180 ha
Location: Mainapokhar, Bardiya
Hydro-geology: As shown in sketch (Figure-9.5)
9.5.2 Assumptions Made
Based on the hydrogeology of the area and past experience assume the discharging capacity of the STW
is 5 lps, which will be sufficient to irrigate about 3 ha of land. The water requirement hence is assumed
as 1.66 lps/ha.
9.5.3 STW Planning
The entire study area consists of 180 ha of land suitable for STW irrigation development. It is proposed
to have 60 units of STWs each irrigating 3 ha of land with discharging capacity of about 5 lit/sec. The
whole command area is developed in 2 clusters having 30 units of STW in each. The irrigated area of
each cluster would be then 90 ha.
9.5.4 Tube-well Design
A typical shallow tube-well consists of a length of the well string continuous through aquifer. The
productive aquifers are screened so that water can enter the well and other strata are sealed with blank
casing. A gravel pack around the well string is necessary to prevent fine sand from the aquifer entering
the well through the screen.
Diameter of pipe: 100 mm
Diameter of casing: 100 mm
Maximum possible depth of tube well: 25 m from ground level
The length of screen is calculated using formula:
Where, L – length of screen in m,
A - area of screen required in m2
A = discharge/entry velocity
Discharge is 5 lps and entry velocity is taken as 3 cm per sec
A = 5 * 0.001 /3 * 0.01 = 0.166 m2
Opening percent is assumed to be 11 percent
d- screen diameter in m = 10 cm= 0.10 m
Thus, the length of screen is 4.83 m and takes as 5.0 m

The transmissivity of groundwater aquifer is assumed to be 1,100 m2 per day for more than 60-m
thickness aquifers, which gives the hydraulic conductivity of 18.33 meter per day. The design discharge
of STW for irrigation of 3 ha of land is assumed to be 5 lps (432 m3 per day). Drawdown is estimated
from Logan’s equation.
Where, S - drawn down in m
Q – design discharge in m3
/day = 5 lps = 432 m3
per day
K – hydraulic conductivity in m per day = 18.33 m/day
L – length of screen in m = 5 m
Thus, drawdown S is equal to 6.22 m
9.5.5 Pump and Motor Design
The pump and motor design is carried out considering the critical condition of pumping the water from
STW. When maximum suction head approaches to the permissible value the situation is critical. This
maximum suction head includes drawn down in water level including losses in the non-return valve,
bends and the pump mechanism. Based on the head to be required the capacity of pump is calculated.
P = (0.746*Q*H)/ (270*E)
Where, P = the required capacity of the pump in kW
Q = required design discharge of the STW in m3/hr = 18 m3
/hr (5 lps)
H = total dynamic head in meters = head loss in delivery + draw down + depth to water
table + other losses = 2.5 m + 6.22 m + 4.5 m + 1 m = 14.22 m, say 15 m.
E = pump efficiency usually taken for overall efficiency as 70 percent
P = (0.746*18*15)/(270*0.70)
Thus P = 1.06 kW
Considering the factor of safety as 25 percent the pump motor capacity comes to:
Capacity of the motor = 1.06*1.25
= 1.33 kW or approximately 2 HP
Indian and Chinese pumps having 2 HP capacities are available in the market. In addition, there are
submersible pumps for 4-inch diameter STW having 3-inch outlet delivery pipe. The discharge of this
type of pump ranges up to 10 lps and 15 lps. Such new technology pumps are also available in the
market.
9.5.6 Distribution System
The distribution system proposed is in line with the practice followed by the farmers. It is considered
that a temporary thatch house will be made as a pump house and the distribution system will be of
earthen channel. The length of such distribution earthen channel will be based on the specific field
conditions depending on topography and its relief. In general the length of the distribution system will
not exceed 240 m and its configuration will depend upon the actual site condition. The bed width of
the canal will be about 20 cm with depth not more than 20 cm in trapezoidal shape.

Chapter-10
10. Micro Irrigation
10.1 Introduction
Micro Irrigation, in the context of Nepal, is related to the alternate methods of both irrigation application
and water acquisition. This chapter deals with the concept and design of various forms of micro irrigation
feasible for Nepal.
10.2 Pond Irrigation
10.2.1 Design Concept
The design of pond irrigation involves the design and assessment of the following components:
· Water availability assessment for the proposed site of pond;
· Irrigation water requirement assessment-based on cropping pattern, irrigation methods;
· Design of intake and conveyance canal or piped system-collection chamber, washout
chamber, flow regulating chamber;
· Design of pond capacity or water storage reservoir; and
· Water application methods- drip irrigation, sprinkle irrigation and or free flooding method;
Figure 110-1: Definition Sketch of pond
Pond irrigation scheme shall be proposed in the water scarce area. In other words it shall be proposed
where the source of water for conventional irrigation may not be sufficient. In such schemes the source
of water may be quite small and need to be tapped carefully. The design of water intake shall involve
the design of spring intake structure as adopted in drinking water supply schemes:
· Measurement of discharge with bucket and watch method,
· Design of overflow weir,
· Design of inlet chamber, and
· Sizing of conveyance pipe
The capacity of pond shall be fixed on the basis of the following:
· Available water at the source,
· Water requirement per day for the proposed crops, and
· Agreed pond operation rules with the farmers

The pond size shall be designed for the dry season water availability and shall be filled within 24 hours.
LILI/HELVETAS has developed standards for the design and implementation of irrigation ponds. The
design standard of the ponds as prescribed by LILI/HELVETAS is as follows:
· Minimum water requirement at source: 300 liter per ropani per day,
· Average irrigation water demand: 500 liter per ropani per day,
· Peak demand: three times of the average demand,
· Irrigated area to be covered by a single pond: maximum 40 ropani and minimum 10
ropani,
· Water release interval from the pond: 12 hours, 24 hours, 36 hours and 48 hours
· Capacity of the pond: 15 m3, 30 m3, 45 m3, and 60 m3.
10.2.2 Design Example of Pond Irrigation
The design example of pond as adopted by LILI/HELVETAS is given in Annex 10-1.
10.3 Sprinkle Irrigation
10.3.1 Sprinkle System Components
The main components of a typical sprinkle irrigation system can be broadly divided into the following:
· Pressurized Water Source
· Pipe Networks (Main Line, Lateral, Riser)
· Sprinkler Heads
The functions and characteristics of each component are briefed hereunder:
Figure 110-2: Pressurized Water for Sprinkle
For small and medium size sprinklers the operating head varies between 10 to 30m. Depending on the
water source, the various methods are used to obtain the desired pressure of water at the inlet of the
unit. The most common methods are:
· Installation of pumping unit
· Gravitational energy (Water source / tank located at higher elevation) and

· Direct connecting from the supply line
Pipe Networks
The pipe network of a sprinkler system consists of the following pipes:
· Main Line: conveys water from source and distributes to the sub main. In the configurations
without sub main, mainline delivers water directly to the laterals. Mains may be either buried
or portable type. The portable types are made of light material such as aluminum, or plastics.
· Lateral: delivers water from the mainline to the sprinklers. It can be permanent or portable.
Its size is smaller than the mainline. Laterals are laid along the contour of the land.
· Risers: The vertical pipe connecting laterals with the sprinkler head is called riser pipe.
Sprinklers
Various types of sprinklers are commercially available. Depending on the mode of operation, sprinklers
are can be classified in the following two types.
· Fixed Head Type
· Rotating type
The fixed head sprinklers do not have rotating parts. They are characterized by short range but high
intensity. Water is sprayed through the fixed nozzle. Normally they produce fine droplets and therefore
best suited for nurseries.
The rotary sprinklers operate due to the impact of the water. The common types of rotary sprinklers
are:
· Rotary Impact Sprinkler
· Reaction or Arm sprinkler and
· Butterfly sprinkler
10.3.2 Micro Sprinkle in Nepal
Micro Sprinkler is smaller version of sprinkler, which operates on much less head and flow than normal
sprinkler. It can be operated in 10 to 15 m head. The radius of throw of a micro-sprinkler is also relatively
small. Because of these technical characteristics, micro-sprinklers are appropriate for irrigating crops
in narrow plots and popular in Nepal. This system is movable and easy to change the location to be
irrigated.
Because of built-in filter in the system, the sprinkler head does not get clogged. The required pressure
head ranges from 10 meters to 15 meters. The required water flow ranges from 0.10 lps to 0.20 lps. The
minimum land area is about 2 Anna which comes to about 60 sq. m.
A complete package of Micro-sprinkler system has following parts:
· Main Pipe Line
· Riser Pipe
· Base
· Tee
· Lock
· Stake
· In-line Filter
· MS Head

10.4 Drip Irrigation
10.4.1 Components of Drip System
The typical unit of drip irrigation system
consists of mainly following four components:
· Pressurized Water Source,
· Head Unit (Control Head),
· Pipe Networks, and
· Emitters
The functions and characteristics of each
component are briefed hereunder.
Pressurized Water Source
The operating head of a drip system can vary between 5m to 12 m which is mainly governed by the
topography and size of the plot to be irrigated. The desired pressure at the inlet of the drip system is
achieved through the following methods:
· Installation of Pumping Unit,
· Direct connecting from the piped supply line, if available pressure is adequate.
· Use of booster pump if the pressure in the supply line is not adequate.
In all cases the water may be supplied either through an elevated tank or without it. Pressure regulation
is essential in the case of the direct connection systems.

Head Unit (Control Head)
The head unit essentially consists of valves to control discharge and pressure in the entire system. Filters
are also integral part of the head unit. Depending on the quality of water one or more types of filters
have to be used in the drip system.
Pipe Networks
Pipe network is the water distribution system up to the root zone of the plant. In practice two types
of pipe are used for water distribution.
· Pipe without emitters and
· Pipe with emitters
Water from the filters is supplied to the sub-mains by means of main pipe line. They are usually buried
below ground, as a permanent setup. Sub-main consists of number of bifurcations to connect laterals
pipe or drip pipe. Sub main distributes waters to all laterals fitted to it. Usually the diameter of the sub
main ranges between 25 to 50 mm. Laterals are laid along the crop rows on the ground and hold emitters
or drippers at a definite spacing. The diameter of pipes used for lateral is usually 9, 12 and 15 mm.
Emitters / Drippers
Drippers are small dispensing devices and are affixed to the laterals. The main function of the dripper
is to discharge consistent amount of water near the plant in form of drops. Drippers burn off pressure
energy to the atmospheric pressure or to create a great head loss. They are so spaced such that the
emitting point is close to the plant. Sometimes more than one dripper is provided for one crop –
especially for the matured fruit trees. For vegetables with small spacing, drippers may be closely spaced
to get a continuous wetting pattern.
10.4.2 Simple Drip System in Nepal
Simple drip system (SDI) is suitable for porous soil where seepage loss is very high and flood irrigation
is very inefficient. The land can be plain, rolling or terraced preferably rectangular. It is desirable for the
irrigation land to be close to the house for regular monitoring and prevention from damage and theft.
The water quality has to be free from appreciable amount of salts, sediments and organic matters. Pre-
filtration is required, if the water is sediment laden.
SDI consists of a 50/200-litre tank placed at one meter elevated plat form or pedestal made of
bamboo/wooden logs. An outlet pipe connects this tank with a fine filter at the bottom of the pipe to
avoid blockage in the drip pipe. Outside the tank there is an outlet set, a level pipe to indicate the level
of water and valve to open and close the water flow. The outlet is connected with a 14 mm diameter
main line pipe, which is joined to the drip pipe with fittings and an adjustment pipe (Figure 10-5).

10.5 Small Scale Lift Irrigation
10.5.1 General
When the source of water for irrigation is at the lower elevation than the command area, the water has
to be lifted through various means of water lifting devices. Pumping from rivers or streams are examples
of lift irrigation. In addition, water for irrigation is also pumped from groundwater sources through
shallow or deep tube wells. In this heading small-scale lift irrigation concentrates mainly on the lift from
small water sources like streams, springs and ponds. For lifting the water or pumping energy is necessary
which is managed by different sources. From the source of energy the power for the lifting devices or
pumps can be categorized as:
· Human power such as hand pumps, rower pumps, treadle pumps
· Fossil fuel such as diesel, petrol, gasoline,
· Solar power,
· Wind power,
· Electric power, and
· Water power (hydraulic ram)

Design Example:
In small irrigation scheme, water demand for irrigation is 600 m3
/day. Calculate the energy required to
lift for 10 m height for pumping of 12 hours per day.
Here; Vw = 600 m3
, h = 10 m,
Then the energy required is calculated as: E = 600*10/367 = 16.35 kWh
Q =Vw/t = 600*1000/3600*12 lit/sec = 13.89 lit/sec,
Then, P = 9.81*13.89*10/1000 = 1.36 kW = 1.85 hp.
10.5.2 Diesel or petrol engine pumps
Petrol engine pumps are suitable for small lift purpose. These pumps are light in weight and cheaper
in cost. Diesel pumps are heavier and costlier in price in comparison to the petrol pumps. Diesel pumps
are suitable for long operating hours. Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used pumps in Nepal.
The water is drawn into the pump from the source through a suction pipe and thrown towards outlet
through delivery pipe. The schematic diagram of the pump is presented here (Figure 10.7).
The pumps characteristics are provided by the manufacturer. The pump selection criteria may be as
follows:
· Best possible adequacy between energy power, discharge and head,
· Low cost,

· Long working life,
· High fuel efficiency,
· Low operating cost,
· Easily available spare parts, and
· Portability
Electric motors are suitable where power supply is connected by the national grid or local supply lines.
In Nepal different Chinese and Indian manufacture motors and pumps are available in the market to
lift the water for small scale irrigation.
10.5.3 Hydraulic Ram
A hydraulic ram or impulse pump is the device that uses the energy of falling water to lift a lesser amount
of water to a higher elevation.
Water is run into a feed pipe from a river. When water runs down the pipe it picks up speed and,
therefore, momentum. As the flow builds up to a fast rate, it overcomes the mechanical spring pressure
on the main valve, causing the valve to close. This stops the flow of water through the feed pipe, but
since it has built up momentum, the pressure inside the pump increases. This force of water through
the check valve momentarily compresses the air in the air chamber. The air then decompresses, pushing
the water through and out of the delivery pipe, while the check valve prevents water from moving
backwards through the pump. As the water flows through the delivery pipe and out of the pump, the
pressure inside the pump drops, allowing the main valve to open again. This allows the water in the
feed pipe to begin flowing again, starting the cycle all over again.
All that is required to make a pump like this function is a minimum of about two feet of drop in the feed
pipe, although more drop is desirable as it provides increased flow rates and greater maximum delivery
heights.

10.5.4 Treadle Pump
Treadle pump is a human powered water-lifting device from unconfined aquifer of ground water storage.
The treadle pump is operated by a stair-step walking motion on two long bamboo poles or treadles,
which in turn activate two steel cylinders. The pump uses a bamboo or PVC or HDPE tube well to extract
ground water for small-scale irrigation. A bamboo structure (as indicated in the figure) is built over the
well with the piston rods attached to pivoted bamboo poles. A treadle pump can be used wherever the
depth of static water table is within 6 m. The treadle pump was originally developed in Bangladesh and
has been modified based on site conditions.

Chapter 11
11. Agriculture Benefit Assessment
11.1 Introduction
The agriculture is the main stay of Nepal’s economy in which more than 70% of the population is
dependent. The application of irrigation enhances agricultural production and productivity. The net
agricultural benefit with the introduction of the irrigation needs to be assessed for the economic
evaluation. The assessment of the agricultural benefit is carried out with the concept of benefit matrix
approach.
11.2 Benefit Matrix Approach
The benefit matrix is a standardized method of economic analysis based on simplified benefit-cost
technique used in irrigation project evaluation. The benefit analysis involves discounting of cash flows
of benefits over the life time of the project to assess the economic viability. The benefit matrix is carried
out separately for “without project” situation and “with project” situation and net economic returns
from each situation are assessed. The net agricultural benefits are the difference of with project benefits
and without project benefits.
11.3 Components of Benefit Matrix
11.3.1 Command Area
The net area actually cultivated in the “without project” and “with project” situations are given below
(PDSP Manual, 1990). This is applicable only for new projects and for rehabilitation project the area will
remain same as of without project situation.
Without Project With Project
Terai 90% 85%
Hills (<8o slope) 85% 80%
Hills (>8o) 80% 75%
11.3.2 Crop Yields
Crop yields are collected from the agricultural survey during the feasibility study of the project. The
existing crop yields are used for “without project” situation while for “with project” situation more
uniform yields are expected due to application of irrigation. The details of cop yield assumption are
presented in tabular form (Table-11.1).
11.3.3 Agriculture Inputs
The main agricultural inputs are seeds, fertilizer, agro-chemicals, labor, and bullock power. The requirement
of these inputs for unit land area (ha) needs to be assessed for both “without project” and “with project”
situations. For “ without project” situation the existing practices of input used is used based on the data
and information collected from the survey. For “with project” situation these agricultural inputs are
taken from the suggested assumptions as given in Table 11.1.

11.3.4 Economic Prices
All prices of agricultural inputs and output need to be converted to economic prices to reflect real value
of national economy. There is big variation in the prices of agricultural commodity across the country
due to the cost of transportation and hence the prices of each project need to be assessed separately.
The prices of crop yields need to be analyzed for the economic farm gate prices. The prices of agricultural
inputs are taken from the nearest market prices.
11.4 Procedure of Benefit Assessment
11.4.1 Total Net Agricultural Returns “Without Project”
Step 1: Prepare crop input and output assumptions
Step 2: Calculate farm-gate commodity prices
Step 3: Prepare “without project” crop budget
Step 4: Calculate “without project” crop areas in the command area
Step 5; Calculate total net agricultural returns “without project”
11.4.2 Total Net Agricultural Returns “With Project”
Step 1: Prepare “with project” crop budget
Step 2: Calculate “with project” crop areas in the command area
Step 3: Calculate total net agricultural returns “with project”
A sample format of crop budget is presented here (Table11.2).

Chapter-12
12. Project Cost Estimate
12.1 Introduction
The cost estimate is defined as the process of assessing actual resources and cost to procure the
construction works, services, and goods. The cost estimate also involves the uncertainties and constraints
to perform the works. The main objective of preparing cost estimate is to evaluate the possible expenses
of the works, services and goods. The cost estimate should be based on the engineering drawings,
specification, and actual site conditions. The information necessary to estimate the cost are:
· Location of the site,
· Engineering drawing, specification and job descriptions,
· Proposed date of commencement and completion,
· Proposed methodology of the works,
· Accessibility and availability of materials and plants, and
· Constraints and uncertainties
The project cost estimate comprises mainly three components:
· Unit rates of the items of works;
· Quantities of the works; and
· Cost of the works
The Public Procurement Regulation 2064 provides points to be considered in estimating the cost. This
chapter deals with the process and procedures of assessing these three components of the project cost
estimate.
12.2 Derivation of Unit Rates
The analysis of the rates of different items of works is calculated on specified format. The district rates
are updated in each fiscal year by District Administration Office or Chief District Office (CDO). Rate
analysis is carried out in standard unit of the items of works and hence named as unit rate of items.
Basically unit rate covers three components:
· Cost of labors,
· Cost of materials, and
· Cost of plants and equipments
The unit rates of the items of the works differ from scheme to scheme and hence need to derive
separately for each scheme. The main activities for the derivation of the unit rates are:
· Listing of items of works for a particular scheme;
· Listing of materials to be used for a particular scheme;
· Collection of approved district rates of different labors and materials;
· Collection of market prices of different construction materials;
· Analysis of rates
Example of Rate Analysis is presented in table 12.1

12.3BillofQuantitiesandAbstractofCosts
Thequantityiscalculatedaccordingtotheexactdimensionsoftheworksfragmentedintosmallgeometricalshapeandsize.Geometricalshapesarerectangle,
circle,triangle,parallelogrametc.Thequantityisbasedonthelength,widthandheightordepthoftheobjecttobeassessed.Basedonthenatureoftheworks
thequantitymaybeinnumber,area,volume,andlength.Someoftheitemsofworkaredifficulttoquantityandhenceareexpressedinlumpsum.Forexample
sitepreparation,sitemobilizationetc.
Thecostoftheworksisderivedwiththemultiplicationofunitrateandthequantityofeachitem.

Chapter-13
13. Economic Analysis
13.1 Introduction
Economic analysis is the process of evaluating best feasible projects among several alternative projects.
The main aim of the economic analysis is to assess the economic viability of projects under consideration.
The analysis is based on the net incremental benefits arising from the project and the economic cost
of the project for its assumed lifetime. To assess the incremental benefit, it is necessary to identify the
costs and benefits that will arise with the project and to compare them with the costs and benefits that
would have been arisen without the project.
13.2 Economic Indicators
Economic analysis is judged on three economic indicators: Net Present Value (NPV), Economic Internal
Rate of Return (ERR), and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR). Forthcoming headings briefly describe these economic
indicators.
Net Present Value (NPV) is the sum of present values of the incremental benefits, discounted at the
fixed rate. The project with positive NPV is said to be economically viable and in comparing alternatives,
the project with higher NPV would be chosen.
Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) is the discount rate which makes the NPV of the incremental
benefits equal to zero. It is the discount rate, which ensures that the present value of the project benefits
is the same as the present value of the costs. The EIRR of the economic project should be more than
the opportunity cost of capital or discount rate (10 %).
Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) is the present value of the project benefits divided by the present value of
costs. If BCR is greater than one, then the project is economically viable for the discount rate chosen.
Discounting is the process of comparing present with future amounts of money. Discounting calculates
the amount of money required today which, when invested at a rate of interest equivalent to the
discount rate, would yield the future amount. Discounting is used to compare the costs and benefits
of the project of different times at a single point of time. It is usually at the time of project appraisal.
If the capital is Rs 1000 and interest rate is 8% the total capital after one year would be Rs 1080 or in
one year Rs 1080 is worth Rs 1000 if discount rate is 8%.
13.3 Basic Assumptions
Basic assumptions for economic analysis are:
· Life of the project- depends upon the nature of structure to be constructed. For small
irrigation schemes the life of the project may be 10 years;
· Construction period- the construction period of the project depends upon the size of
the works. For small scale irrigation schemes the construction period may be 1-2 years;
· Build up period for full agricultural benefits (1-3 years);
· Opportunity cost of capital in Nepal to be taken as 10 %;
· Standard conversion factor 0.95 for construction costs and 0.90 for operation and
maintenance costs.

Background
Government of Nepal has enacted Local Infrastructure Development Policy (LIDP) 2061 in order to
accelerate the pace of rural development and to reduce the rural poverty by improving the access of
rural people to goods, service and facilities for the betterment of their life. The policy states that Ministry
of Local Development (MoLD) has mandate for implementation of small irrigation projects, whereas it
has number of other infrastructure sectors with the responsibility of coordination and facilitation to
expedite the process of decentralization. Small irrigation systems are defined as systems having less
than 25 hectors of irrigation area in the hills and mountains and less than 200 hectors in the Terai plains.
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) is the technical
department within the Ministry of Local Development and therefore, is responsible for overall management
of local infrastructure development on behalf of the Ministry.
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) was established for
the management of local infrastructures by providing technical backstopping to the local level institutions,
especially for the District Development Committees (DDCs). Small irrigation project is now a day is
developing by different bodies. Nevertheless, local bodies are also implementing few small irrigation
projects every year either solely by themselves or in association with different line/donor agencies,
GOs, I/NGOs etc.
DoLIDAR is supporting the local bodies for implementation of small irrigation projects in community
level. In this context DoLIDAR intends to hire consultancy services for feasibility study of small irrigation
project in ……………….. District.
Objectives of the consulting services
The main objective of this study is to assess the irrigation potential of the available water
resources to meet the irrigation demand of proposed command area. The Specific objectives
of this study are outlined below:
a) To assess water availability in proposed Stream/River for irrigating the command area.
b) To assess the total command area available for irrigation.
c) To assess the alignment conditions with cross drainage structure required.
d) To verify the socioeconomic status of the farmers.
e) To identify the agricultural activities in the command area.
f) To assess the technical, economical, environmental and social feasibility of the proposed
irrigation system.
g) Recommendation for further study.
Scope of Work
The scope of work under a detailed feasibility study includes:

· Study and review of reconnaissance or pre-feasibility study of the project, if prepared in earlier
study (Desk Study).
· Carry out hydrological, topographical, geological survey and investigations. Collect information
on existing infrastructure.
· Conduct socio-economic survey and environmental study of the project and supply area
· Study of multipurpose use of water resource (Irrigation, micro hydro and water supply)
· Measurement of water available in the river.
· Measurement of total command area and canal length.
· Identification of different structure needed for the development of project.
· Calculation of crop water requirement
· Prepare layout, design and dimensioning of the components of the Irrigation System on feasibility
study level
· Preparation of Preliminary project cost estimation
· Preparation of the report including the findings of the field study and recommendation with
the technical, economical.
Methodology
The entire work of detailed feasibility study report was carried out in three stages:
Stage first : Field study, Data collection
Stage second: Reconnaissance design and estimate
Stage third : Final report preparation
Field Study
The survey team, in close co-operation with Uses’ Group shall carry out survey of technical works. Users
group of scheme will assist the team especially in acquiring the socio-economic information of the area.
· Comprehensive reconnaissance survey around the project area.
· Headwork’s study (Availability of water, River width, slope and bed materials)
· Canal alignment and command area survey.
· Assess the cropping pattern (existing & after the project)
· Through analysis of the situation, measurements to be carried out to locate the best suitable
headwork, proper canal alignment, cross drainage structures etc.
· Environmental assessment of the scheme

Design and Cost Estimate

Implementation Arrangement
All the arrangement including logistic support, supporting staffs, movement to field, typing etc to carry
out the job should be managed by firm itself with its own convenience.
Deliverables
The consultant needs to submit following reports within 3 months.
Inception report
Two copies of inception report shall be submitted within fifteen days from contract agreement.
Draft report
Three copies of draft report shall be submitted within two months from contract agreement.
Final report
Five copies of final report with soft copy shall be submitted within 3 month from contract agreement.
The consultant shall submit the final report incorporating the comments received from the client on
the draft report.
Mode of payment
The payment shall be made as mentioned below:
· First Installment (40% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval of Inception
Report.
· Second installment (40% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval of Draft
Final Report.
· Last installment (20% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval of Final
Report.

Background
Government of Nepal has enacted Local Infrastructure Development Policy (LIDP) 2061 in
order to accelerate the pace of rural development and to reduce the rural poverty by improving
the access of rural people to goods, service and facilities for the betterment of their life. The
policy states that Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (MoLD) has mandate for
implementation of small irrigation projects, whereas it has number of other infrastructure sectors
with the responsibility of coordination and facilitation to expedite the process of decentralization.
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) is the
technical department within the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development and therefore,
is responsible for overall management of local infrastructure development on behalf of the
Ministry.
Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads was established for
the management of local infrastructures by providing technical backstopping to the local level
institutions, especially for the District Development Committees (DDCs). Small irrigation project
is now a day is developing by different bodies. Nevertheless, local bodies are also implementing
few small irrigation projects every year either solely by themselves or in association with different
line/donor agencies, GOs, I/NGOs etc.
DoLIDAR is supporting the local bodies for implementation of small irrigation projects in
community level. In this context DoLIDAR intends to hire consultancy services for detailed
survey, design and cost estimate report preparation of …………………………………district.
Objectives of the consulting services
The main objective of this study is to detailed survey, design and cost estimate report preparation of
small irrigation project. The Specific objectives of this study are outlined below:
a. To access water availability in proposed River for irrigating the command area
and calculate the total water requirement and water balance of the study area.
b. To access the total command area available for irrigation.
c. To carry out the layout, L-section and X-section survey of the project area.
d. To access the best location for developing the reservoir and related structure.
e. To verify the socioeconomic status of the farmers.
f. To carry out the economic analysis of the project with detailed cost estimate,
design and drawing.
Scope of Work
The scope of work under a detailed Design study includes:
Ø Feasibility Study
o The consultant should carry out the feasibility study of the proposed scheme and if feasible
then detailed design study is carried out.
Ø Collection of field data/Survey work
o Measurement of water available in the river.

o Measurement of total command area and canal length.
o Detailed survey of L-section of the canal alignment and location of the different
structures needed for the project.
o Collection of socio economic and agricultural data.
Ø Office work
o Calculation of the crop water requirement and design discharge of the project.
o Carry out the dimension, design and cost estimate of water storage system and
related structures.
o Carry out detailed design, drawing and estimate of the project.
o Carry out the economic analysis of the project.
3. Methodology
The consultant shall carry out the study in the following manner.
Ø Desk Study
The desk study shall be started immediately after the signing of the agreement and shall consist of but
not limited to the following activities:
o Prepare detailed work plan to cover both field and subsequent office work
identifying the need to carry out further works based on the information collected
as above.
Ø Field Work
Field work shall be started immediately after consultation with DoLIDAR and concerned DDC Office.
The canal alignment and command area survey should be carried out with the use of GPS for identification
study while detailed study shall be carried out with the use of level and Theodolite. The questionnaire
should be used to collect and analyze the data. The field work shall consist of but not limited to the
following activities:
o Familiarization and Rapid Appraisal of the work
o Fielding of the study team as outline in the work schedule.
o Familiarization of the study team with concerned staff and user community.
o Detail field survey and data collection
A. Headwork’s Study
· Availability of water.
· River width, slope and bed materials
B. Canal Alignment Survey
· Total length of the canal
· Idle length
· Structure needed along the canal alignment
· Chain age of each structure
C. Command Area Survey

Final report
Five copies of final report on each of the detailed design of small irrigation system with soft
copy shall be submitted within 3 month from contract agreement. The consultant shall submit
the final report incorporating the comments received from the client on the draft report.
Mode of payment
The payment shall be made as mentioned below:
· First Installment (40% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval
of Inception Report.
· Second installment (40% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval
of Draft Final Report.
· Last installment (20% of total cost) will be provided after submission and approval
of Final Report.

3.9 Social map and layout plan
(Ref: Handbook for technicians and facilitators (SEE))
4 Comment by Surveyor:
Signature of Surveyor

Typical Drawings Sample

Design mannual for small scale irrigation scheme book

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Design mannual for small scale irrigation scheme book